This paper was written Spring Semester, 1999, under Michael Gagnon, in the History Department, at the University of Georgia, as a requirement for completion of History 4000, "Social History of Antebellum America." The views expressed in this paper are strictly the author's own, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the instructor, the department, nor the university.

Looking back to Athens, Georgia in 1833 we are able to locally view part of a national educational phenomenon. The subject was the movement to establish manual labor schools in which low- income males could receive an education, while hard at labor so as to improve their lives and hopefully lead them to preaching the Gospel. Many of these schools were sponsored by Protestant organizations, mainly the Presbyterian Church. Although the school in Athens wasn't open long, two more manual labor schools opened in Georgia after the Athens Manual Labor School closed. 1835 saw the opening of the Gwinett Institute located near Lawrenceville and the Midway Seminary located outside of Milledgeville. Other manual labor schools were established throughout the nation but they garnered most of their popularity in the South. Perhaps this popularity rose from the lack of public schools. Although the schools were established with the best of intentions, the interest to fund them or attend them was not high enough and they ceased to function in the mid-1800's. Though some of the schools across the nation closed their doors permanently, others were developed into full-fledged colleges that are still around today. One example is the Presbyterian- backed Ogelthorpe University, which was formerly the Midway Seminary. Despite their short lives, manual labor schools gave many young men the chance to have an education that they probably would not have been able to achieve on their own.

The Georgia Presbyterian Education Society organized the Athens Manual Labor School. The school opened its doors in January of 1833 and was located about a mile outside of Athens. The Georgia Presbyterian Education Society selected Mr. B. B. Hopkins, a former officer of Franklin College (later the University of Georgia), to run the school. Mr. Hopkins' fine qualifications, his age, experience, etc. gave the Society substantial evidence that he was fit to instruct the school.1

The school was open to any young man who had good morals, and who was old and strong enough. Most welcome were Presbyterian young men who sought the ministry. The students were to be housed with Mr. Hopkins and be under his guardianship and control. Along with their studies, they were to labor at least three to four hours per day, excluding Saturday and Sunday. This labor was not only intended to defer much of the cost of education, but to promote the health and welfare of the boys as well. "The grand object.is to secure health and morals; and these are advantages equally desirable to the rich and poor."2

The Athens Manual Labor School's first year of existence had been as successful as everyone had planned. Laboring had not hindered the studies of the students, and an ample supply of oats, corn, and fodder had been grown and stored for the following year. The students were getting a fine liberal education as well. The School had thirty-two students whose sixty- five dollar fees covered tuition, room and board, laundry, and other costs.3

Even though the school seemed to be successful, the Education Society kept the School open only one more year. They felt Athens was becoming "too cosmopolitan for this rural endeavor". They sold the farm in December 1834 and moved the school outside of Milledgeville.4

The appeal of manual labor schools wasn't solely felt in America. In fact it spread to this country after originating in Europe. They organized and prospered in America during a period when there were few, if any, free public schools. If a family wanted their son to have an education they would have to be wealthy enough to afford a tutor or private academy. Since this was not an option to many at the time, manual labor schools were found favorable.

Many organizations supported manual labor schools. Most of these were churches, none more involved than the Presbyterian Church. The Presbyterians had always had a strong interest in education and they give a fine display of this interest with their support of manual labor schools. In the South, various states Presbyteries organized these schools in many locations. The Georgia Educational Society was organized as interdenominational in 1824, but it was lead by Presbyterians. With their strong church support, manual labor schools hoped to educate and prepare their students for the Gospel ministry. However, the schools were not confined only to those Christian boys whose futures were in the ministry. Just as in the Athens Manual Labor School, they were open to males of any denomination as long as they were moral, hard working, and had an interest in learning.5

The main theory behind manual labor schools was that too many young men went off to school, gained great knowledge, but lost their health and fitness. The combination of work and study would lead to greater industrious habits in the future. The young man's day would consist of at least three to four hours of labor in the school's wood shop, garden, or farm. He would then spend his hours studying a liberal curriculum found in any other type of school.6

Funding for these schools was procured from different sources. Most of the funds came from the sale of stocks in the school. For example, the Manual Labor Academy of Pennsylvania sold shares of their stock for $20 each, with each share permitting a vote on the Board of Trustees. The schools would also sell their excess products and produce. Additional funds would come from the students' labor-decreased tuition.7

Including the Athens Manual Labor School, Georgia had three manual labor schools. The Midway Seminary opened in January 1834. Having previously been the Athens Manual Labor School, the Georgia Presbyterian Education Society felt it would be better situated just outside of Milledgeville. It was run in the same manner in which it was run in Athens. The Society selected the Rev. C.P. Beman to run the Seminary. His qualifications were reportedly known throughout the state. The pupils were still required to work their three daily hours, with their labor determined by their age, strength, and experience. 8

Georgia's other manual labor school was the Gwinnett Institute, which also opened in January of 1834. It, too, was organized by the same Society. Located a few miles outside of Lawrenceville, the Gwinett Institute had the Rev. Robert McAlpin appointed head of the school. Lawrenceville was seemingly selected for the location of this school because of its poorer population who couldn't attend any other type of formal education, as well as its more remote location at the edge of the Cherokee nation.9

Unfortunately the Georgia Presbyterian Education Society ended in 1835. Upon this event the Board of Trustees of the Midway Seminary gave their school to the Hopewell Presbytery which put it "under the exclusive government and control of the Presbyterian Church." This move was made in hopes that the presbytery's supervision would give the school some strength and permanence, along with greater moral and religious support, therefore making it more appealing. Under the new guidance of the Hopewell Presbytery steps were taken to raise the Midway Seminary to a college, with the education of ministers in mind. On December 21, 1835 a charter was granted for Ogelthorpe College.10

Georgia was only one state that had such schools. The Manual Labor Academy of Pennsylvania was located in Germantown and opened on May 1, 1829. The Academy was under the supervision of the Presbyterian Church and headed by the Rev. John Monteith.11 It was Rev. Monteith who suggested the school on a visit to Philadelphia. Rev. Monteith was a native of Oneida County, New York and was knowledgeable in the operations of the Utica Manual- Labor School in New York. The organization of the Pennsylvania school was much like the schools in Georgia, with the promises and goals of a sound body and mind, strong morals, and reduced tuition through labor. The School saw prosperity and a rise in enrollment, but in time was forced to shut its doors.

Washington, D.C. also had its own manual labor school. Washington's Manual Labor School and Male Orphan Asylum opened its doors in 1838.12 Other such schools were the Greensboro Academy and Manual Labor school in North Carolina, along with another such school in North Carolina. The Synod of West Tennessee promoted a manual labor school, as did the Presbytery of South Carolina, which opened its "Manual Labor School" in order to raise men to the ministry.13

Some colleges, which had Protestant backing, used manual labor systems as a means to lower students' tuition. Among them were Emory, and Emory and Henry, Methodist-backed; Wake Forest, Mercer, and Richmond, Baptist-backed; and Erskine, Davidson, and, of course, Ogelthorpe, which are Presbyterian-backed. As in the smaller academies, the college men would have to labor agriculturally or mechanically a few hours a day to promote health and to lower cost. But at Davidson College, as well as others, students disliked the manual labor requirements and the program proved unprofitable. Tool supply, breakage, and repair drained the budget and after three years the program ended at Davidson.14

For all the good that manual labor schools offered it wasn't enough to keep them running. Various reasons lead to their demise. One of the main ones seems to have been a lack of funding. The schools proved to be much more expensive than originally believed. The cost of tools and their repairs seemed to amount to more than anyone planned. The tuition the students paid did not amount to much either. With a student body of twenty to thirty-five young men paying $30-$100 each, the tuition didn't total as much as actually needed. Another possibility could have been the lack of interest of stock subscribers to the schools. Though it seems there was interest in the stocks at the time of the schools' formations, it isn't believed to have continued much more afterwards.

Lack of interest in a manual labor education was another reason for they ending. As seen at Davidson College, the students found the extra work unpopular. And, at least with the majority of the white population in the South being yeoman farmers, children were too valuable as laborers on their own family's farms to give up for any period of time.

The strong emergence of free, tax-supported, public schools during the 1840's was probably the strongest blow to the survival of manual labor schools. Having to no longer rely on expensive tutors or private academies for an education, these free schools were state run and appealed to a majority of people.

Though manual labor schools eventually ceased to exist, not all of them closed their doors permanently. A few of them would be converted to colleges that that continued to be in existence . Such is the case mentioned earlier of the Midway's Seminary's conversion to Ogelthorpe College. Many of these that were able to continue had strong church support and stressed Gospel education.

Athens, Georgia participated in a national form of education. The Athens Manual Labor School provides a local example of this type of education. With their low cost and physical benefits, manual labor schools were able to give a quality education and good health through required labor. Many poor families who could not afford a tutor or private academy were able to send their sons to these schools due to their labor-reduced. Their strong church support, especially from the Presbyterian Church, allowed manual labor schools to offer a good education and a vehicle to the ministry. Even though the school in Athens was not open for long, Georgia was well represented in this form of education through two other institutions. Manual labor schools were located throughout the country and achieved most of their popularity in the South, most likely due to its lack of strong public schools.

Although manual labor schools offered cheaper education and great health benefits, several factors hindered their survival. The lack of money needed to fund them, the lack of interest to attend such a school and the emergence of state public schools all contributed to the demise of manual labor schools. Many of the schools were able to continue their legacy by being converted to colleges and later, universities, which still educate students today. Even with their short existence, manual labor schools did give a quality education and health to many young American men.

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Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1974

1607-1861.

Richmond, Virginia: John Knox Press, 1963