This paper was written Spring Semester, 1999, under Michael Gagnon, in the History Department, at the University of Georgia, to fulfill the senior writing requirement for completion of the History major. The views expressed in this paper are strictly the author's own, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the instructor, the department, nor the university.

From 1890 to 1940, electricity transformed almost every facet of American Society. This paper will start with discussions about pre-industrial industrialization and will end with exploring how rural electrification forever changed America. There were many factors that speeded up the electrification of Athens, as well as many influential people who saw the importance of the new power source and exploited it. This comprehensive analysis will use Athens as a case study in the expansion of electrical power in America. From this case study, we will be able to view the larger framework of what actually took place throughout the United States. This topic is extremely important since electricity changed America, from the largest factory to the smallest household. In addition, this newly generated current solved many problems dealing with industrialization. Perhaps most importantly, the bringing about of electric power inherently caused many new inventions to come about.

Although there was a great deal of data present for such a comprehensive analysis through secondary sources, primary sources were few and far between. This type of problem pertains to knowing that many events definitely took place within Athens. Within this paper, many of the developments in Athens were expected to parallel developments in other parts of Georgia. This is especially true with records pertaining to the Georgia Railway and Electric Company. Some of their records were used and their dates should correspond to certain events occurring in Athens at the same time. Before we can truly begin any paper on electricity, we must first analyze the factors that led to the development of the electric current.

Up until the early 1890s, many of the towns throughout the United States relied on water to spin the wheels to operate their factories. Although this did not power the towns nearby, the factories could operate using this waterpower. All of these factories had to be located above the fall line, which made Athens an ideal candidate for such an endeavor. With a steady drop in elevation along the rivers, water wheels could be set up in many areas to provide force for the machinery. Many of these mills faced the problem of locating next to a major river that could flood out the building or face the threat of the building burning down from an oil lamp. The advent of electricity and the bringing in hydroelectric dams eliminated these problems entirely. These dams allowed the factories to move to more centralized distribution points where employees could better reach the facilities. This also allowed the factories to better import raw materials and export their finished products. In addition, the land immediately surrounding a river in many cases was not the most suitable land. The land could be hilly or rock laden, which could cause substantial problems in construction. However, the first mills were not afforded this luxury so now we will explore where the first mills in Athens operated and how they worked.

As previously stated, the precursor to all hydroelectric power was the mechanical power generated by the mills. By looking at the map on the following page, one can clearly see that mills were everywhere throughout Clarke County. In fact, the earliest dated mill in Athens can be traced back to 1786. This site was at the shoals site on Cedar Creek. The two largest textile factories in Clarke County were the Athens Factory and the Georgia Factory that both started in the early 1800s. Both of these mills were on the North Oconee River and the Athens factory was located where O'Malleys and DialAmerica are presently located.

Some of these early mills were forced to share the water, which was made available by backing up the river with a dam. For instance, the Georgia mill and Moore's mill were forced to both use the water that was backed up by the nearby dam. So when there was a drought, the Moore's mill factory was forced to shut down for that brief time and the Georgia mill was allowed to run. This was due to the inability of both mills to run simultaneously when there was a shortage of waterpower available that created disputes as to who had the water rights. There is little doubt that these shared dammed regions faced problems that only outside parties could resolve throughout the nation. In addition, there were numerous other problems that these early mills faced.

Most of these mills lived in fear of either burning down or becoming the victim of a catastrophic flood. To show the threat that these early mills faced, we will examine the Athens Manufacturing Company that was completed in the early 1800s. This factory was completely washed away in a catastrophic flood. If this was not enough, the factory burned twice to the ground in the years 1834 and in 1857. Some of these fires were undoubtedly started by the use of kerosene and gas lamps that were prominate features throughout many of the early mills. With the advent of electricity, the factory could not only help to avoid the fires by switching to light bulbs but could place the factory away from the problems that a potential flood could bring to an area. Undoubtedly, the accidents that occurred in these early mills contributed to formation of the Athens Hook and Ladder Company. Strangely enough, the Athens Steam Company burned to the ground in 1853, which was about the same time that the Hook and Ladder Company came into existence. Dealing with hazards such as fires were part of common life in the eighteenth century, but lets now explore several of the types of power that make this common life much less hazardous.

From 1890 to 1940, the regions that supplied this power as well as the way the power was created changed dramatically. Generally, hydroelectric power and steam auxiliaries were the primary ways of powering towns through the first part of this century due to the limited technology as well as the ease of creating power through the use of water. Most of the first changes dealt with the replacement of one turbine with a turbine two to three times the size of the original. Today, electrical power in Athens is linked to the rest of the Southeastern US through a system that can distribute power from one city to another in an instant.

From this analysis, one can clearly see that all regions started with waterpower and later merged with other power companies. Furthermore, as towns continued to grow outwardly and steam auxiliaries from coal no longer rectified the situation, towns were forced to consider other options. The option these growing towns faced was the necessity to merge with other companies to fulfill their electrical needs. This precipitated the first major shift in electric power in the United States. A shift from a hometown electric company to a large conglomerate of small electric companies sharing power with one another until they no longer maintained their own separate identities. They became large centralized corporations controlling extremely vast regions of this country. The second shift occurred later when alternate forms of power were invented that could power large regions of the country with little effort. However, before we get entranced with those events, lets explore in specific detail exactly what exactly happened that caused many people to step forward to lead the way for electrification to occur.

Early electrification in Athens began with the transformation from the mechanical power of the wheels to electrical power. From the late 1880s, many mills used electric power to operate the lights within their mills. This was easy for the factories to accomplish since the mechanisms for waterpower were entrenched to operate the machinery. By placing the lightbulbs in the factories, the factories greatly reduced their risk of burning down and improved the quality of life for their workers. The lightbulbs were cooler than gas lamps and also gave off more luminescence. Therefore, causing a happier workplace and perhaps fewer accidents.

Early in Athens electrification, a few wealthy men tried to make profits using the new electric streetcar invention. On June 23, 1891, Athens became a town that used electricity to power its cars rather than the mules that did the carting in the century before. Harris and Voss who took over the railway business from Snodgrass made this dramatic change. Snodgrass was a businessman from Texas who came to Athens to profit from carting. Snodgrass used mules to do the carting and this caused several problems. For one, the mules often defecated in the streets and the streets were hardly streets at all. Whenever it rained, many of the city streets would turn to mud due to the mules' hooves walking in the wet dirt. This caused the mules to work much harder and inconvenienced the population since they would undoubtedly get muddy getting on and off the cart. Unfortunately, this railway business under the electric cars was far more unreliable than with the mules. The electrical equipment constantly broke down and the untrained workers had no idea how to fix the problems that occurred. In the picture on the following page, one can see exactly how Athens reacted during 1892. Some people still rode the old mule carts, while others rode the new streetcars. Unfortunately for the new owners, the Panic of 1893 and the financial problems that followed were more than enough to force Harris and Voss to sell their company. Seeing an opportunity to buy the company, another businessman by the name of Mell took over the electric streetcar industry in Athens. However, he still encountered the same problems that caused Harris and Voss to sell their company in the previous year. So in 1894, Mell could no longer afford to operate the electric railway business and he was forced to suspend operations indefinitely. This proved to be extremely unfortunate for the people of Athens who relied on this new form of transport. Since so many people still wanted the electric railway, W.S. Holman talked with Mell and assured him that he would not lose money if he sold the company. Fortunately for Athens, this business transaction took place and in June 1894 Athens once again had public transportation. This newly formed company was the Athens Electric Railway Company that would serve Athens for the following 16 years.

Other areas around the U.S. used electricity to power their streetcars. In 1888, about the same time Athens began using streetcars, Frank Spragues started the nation using electric streetcars. These streetcars operated in Richmond, Virginia. From this electric streetcar example, we can see that Athens began using streetcars only three years later. This means that Athens was on the cutting edge of what was modern technology. In addition to the electric railway, Athens used electricity for other purposes as well.

Obviously this new current effected industrialization, but it greatly affected family life as well. Undoubtedly the most important invention of this new electric era was that of the light bulb. By 1899, electricity powered 3,480 light bulbs in Athens. By 1938, that number would grow to 35,000 light bulbs. There were several companies who contributed to this growth in lighting. In 1890, the local Gas Company began to furnish some electric light and placed a few throughout the city. By 1892, the Athens Gas Company became the Athens Gas and Electric Company that began to hang electric lights in the center of the streets while gas lamps still remained on the street corners. These electric lights were strung across the streets at a distance of about 800 feet and in 1892 there were approximately 56 of them. By 1896, Athens began to see that the steam power just was not enough to supply the lighting needs of the growing town. In an attempt to help solve the power shortage, the Athens Electric Railway Company transported the steam generator from the steam plant to Mitchell's Bridge where it supplied Athens with hydroelectric power. This hydroelectric power only temporarily solved the power shortage problem.

On December 12, 1896, Brumby's drug store became the first shop in Athens with electric lighting generated from hydroelectric power of the Middle Oconee River. In the same year, some of the homes within Athens also began to see the benefits of electric lighting. By 1897, Athens was feeling the need to light the entire city and hired Athens Manufacturing Company to do that job. However, in the following year the Athens Electric Company took over the job and the Athens Electric Railway Company continued to light many of the homes in Athens. Many people who did not receive electricity wanted electricity in their homes and electricity was seen as a status symbol. However, before this electricity could be enjoyed, it had to be supplied through power stations throughout early Athens.

The power generated to produce the early lighting in Athens came from Station #1 that was on Mitchell's Bridge Road. The plant on Mitchell's Bridge Road was made possible by Holman, Dearing, Bryan, and Carithers (founders of Athens Electric Railway Company) who purchased this plant so they could save money from operating the expensive steam plant. This steam plant required a steady supply of coal that was fairly expensive in comparison to the hydroelectric power, that was cheap to produce once the equipment was paid off. This power from Mitchell's Bridge Road was only the beginning for waterpower. The electricity produced from the Middle Oconee River later powered many of the plants found around Athens. An upgrade at this Mitchell Bridge plant by adding an additional turbine allowed the streets of Athens to have additional lights in 1898. Just two years later, Station #2 opened on Tallassee Shoals that sent its electricity to the switchboard on Prince; from which the entire city of Athens could enjoy the benefits of electricity.

Up to this point, textile mills in Athens required water wheels to turn the many parts necessary to work their machinery. However, with the introduction of other power sources, other areas would be more suitable to build a factory. This would allow the employees to walk a shorter distance to go to work and to be able to see at night. In addition, shops could stay open for longer hours and allow the employees to work under better conditions than previously.

In addition to lighting and railway purposes, electricity was also put to work in factories. The mills used by far the most power that was generated by these hydroelectric and steam plants. Although the general population used quite a bit of power in their homes, the factories consumed much more. Of these factories, the oil mills used by far the most electricity in this now booming town. Within Athens, the population was rising and the need for electricity grew substantially with each passing year. This growth caused the power companies to look for additional power sources whenever possible. Furthermore, the street lighting which was extremely important to Athens only cost the city between sixty-seven to one hundred and sixty dollars per month. Winter months cost more due to the decreased sunlight. As one can clearly see, that even with the effects of inflation, sixty-seven dollars to light an entire city for a month is quite a good deal.

Other companies throughout the nation also faced power shortages due to the quick early growth of electricity. Due primarily to increasing industrial and street lighting, many cities throughout the nation felt shortages. In Sacramento California, during 1897 and 1898, there was substantial growth followed by several drought years. These shortages caused this region to build additional dams to meet their growing power needs. As shown above, Athens also opened new power stations to fulfill their growing needs during drought conditions and accelerated growth. Electrification was not only about supplying power, but consumer goods as well.

By the year 1908, the power companies were selling many different items to their customers. Many of the first electrical inventions filled the need of cooling down the temperature in the house. Perhaps one of the biggest early inventions was the creation of an electric fan. This fan could offer some additional comfort that people had never been able to receive without fanning themselves. Other new inventions were many small cooking appliances. Up until this point, in many homes, the kitchen was a separate part of the house due to the inherent risks of fire. With these new inventions that risk was greatly reduced and the power companies effectively used risk reduction in its ads. Furthermore, the electric lights, these cooking appliances, and electric irons possessed another advantage, they produced less heat than the gas forerunners. Even using an iron was a major ordeal since heating of the range had to occur before the ironing could begin. Imagine on a hot, humid, summer night in Athens using gas lamps to see around the house. This undoubtedly would be an extremely uncomfortable experience. However, there was a later shift from light consumer goods to more durable goods.

Many of the first inventions were major appliances that customers believed to be the most important in the home. The construction of these various appliances helped to feed the spirit of industrialization found throughout the nation at that time. In the beginning, the appliances were what every home wanted first since many people believed that they made life easier. After the inventions described earlier, larger appliances began to be created to fill the need for these new necessities. Many of the inventions filled daily parts of the lives of many people but the power companies helped to make these inventions seem impossible to live without them. This second round of appliances included vacuum cleaners, washing machines, heating pads, percolators, space heaters, water heaters, and electric ranges. Perhaps the most important invention out of these new appliances was probably the refrigerator. This invention allowed people to keep food from going bad without the hassle of an icebox. People throughout the nation began receiving this appliance in 1923. The power companies who already had a monopoly over an area sold many of these appliances to customers. The Georgia Power company had a Home Services Division that served both Athens and Atlanta with various products that the company sold. The Home Services Division was composed of door to door salesmen who went into homes and pitched a wide array of products to the customer.

Unfortunately, the city of Athens faced problems with faulty equipment. Some of the same problems that occurred with the old mill wheels also occurred with the electric plants. In 1900, one of the wheels broke that powered the turbine so Athens had one night of darkness. However, the city worked quickly and the Mitchell's Bridge Road Station was repaired in less than one day. There were several other problems that persisted with hydroelectric power.

The biggest problem that early power plants faced dealt with the weather. If there were floods, than the plants could have difficulty producing power. During 1903, a flood submerged several motors requiring them to be replaced. On the other hand, during a drought situation there would not be enough available water to fulfill the electrical needs of Athens. This is one of the primary reasons why Athens added a steam powered auxiliary generator in 1904 and later double its turbine size in 1908. Although the steam auxiliary helped, Athens always had the wet and dry seasons making the city rely on steam in some months more than other months. This station which was known as Station 3 was the only station that did not rely on water from the areas rivers but did require a constant supply of coal to operate effectively. Although this steam auxiliary helped to solve many of the shortage problems that Athens faced, sometimes the power just was not enough.

In 1911, to raise more capital to finance expansion, the Athens Electric Railway Company reorganized as Athens Railway and Electric Company. Under the new charter, the company found a new site to supply the growing town of Athens with a great deal more electricity, Station #4 on Barnett Shoals. This was by far the largest dam, with a drop of 45 feet compared to Station #2, which had a drop of only 30 feet. This distance allowed the new plant to have more water backed up that allowed more pressure to spin the wheels faster and create more electricity. In addition the extra fall distance allowed larger turbines to be installed at this plant which boasted 3700 horsepower. in comparison to the possible total of 9800 h.p. when water was sufficient for all stations. This fourth station became operational in 1911 when James White leased the dam to the company for 99 years. The extra size of this dam and larger amount of horsepower was partially made possible through a change in ownership of the company. This was due to the excess capital now available with the new company. Furthermore, this dam was the first concrete reinforced dam in Athens and it had the newest turbines available. These factors allowed Station #4 to avoid much of the deterioration of the other dams on the Oconee River. Many of the other dams were made of rock that was mortared together. Within these dams the mortar often broke loose and the rocks washed away. Another problem dealt with wooden supports that deteriorated over time. In fact, this Station is still operating today which is largely due to its modern concrete construction. Before these various stations came into existence, what were they?

Two, and perhaps all three, of these hydroelectric plants occupied former mill sites. For instance, the Barnett Shoals dam that was just explained above produced the power originally to operate a large cotton mill. Also, the hydroelectric station on Tallassee Shoals was originally a gristmill. Although concrete evidence is not available for the plant on Mitchell's Bridge, it is probable that this was a mill at one time as well. These mills were taken over by the power plants in many of the strongest potential areas for hydroelectric power. Out of all the mills in Athens, the cotton mill on Barnett Shoals produced the most power. All the power stations combined boasted an output of 9800 horsepower in 1911. The business practice of these small power plants was to buy the best hydroelectric dams and then make improvements upon them. These improvements could be from adding concrete reinforcements to the addition of much larger and powerful turbines in order to increase the stability and power of the station. If this practice was common in Athens, then it probably occurred in many other areas of the nation as well. Although many of these new plants produced a great deal of power at times there were still many potential problems.

One of the ways to help finance expansion of the electric business was to sell some of the stock to other individuals. In 1913, Doherty and Company became the majority shareholders in the Athens Railway and Electric Company. These large New York based companies probably bought out many of the electric companies. This allowed them to make a profit from them through consolidation. From the centralized position, they could hire people in various positions to go out and see all of their properties. They then hired numerous people including engineers to make improvements on the existing sites and find the optimal way of running the business. However, in Athens the company left Flanigen as General Manager of the company overseeing its daily operations. These New York companies maintained strong financial ties to the electric plants allowing them to expand somewhat. However, these corporate executives rarely ever came down to see their business. They were concerned with the finances but not with the electrical business itself. Evens with these strong financial ties to Athens, there still were numerous problems which the local electric people were forced to face.

During World War I, industrial production for the war effort caused a shortage of electricity in Athens. This shortage was due to plants working overtime to produce goods to be used in the war effort. There was no way to increase the total output of electricity without either adding larger turbines or adding more plants. The Athens Railway and Electric Company chose to increase electrical generating capacity by increasing the steam power to the city. Therefore in 1918, the city increased the steam turbine in Station #3 to four times its original size. By changing the turbine, the horsepower produced increased but not enough to quell the needs of the cities' consumers. The company was forced to ask consumers to cut back on power consumption so that the electricity could be used to create products usable in the war. Furthermore, the company warned consumers that due to the increased demand, the power could cut off from time to time. At the same time that the company was asking consumers to cut back on electric consumption, prices for all the materials that the company needed more than doubled, due to the shortages caused by the war driving prices up for wire and anything mechanical.

Since the war caused the price on these goods to rise and consumer consumption to fall, the company could not find enough money to expand into other areas or produce better service to areas already receiving electricity. In addition, the company found that they could not increase the price per kilowatt-hour without having a public uproar. At the same time these events are occurring, the population in Athens doubled from about 10,000 in 1910 to 20,000 in 1915 creating even more homes who want electricity, which created tremendous problems for the Athens Railway and Electric Company.

Throughout the rest of the nation and the world, many areas also faced power shortages and were forced to adapt. The U.S. was forced to create a tremendous number of products quickly and electricity was an essential element. After the United States entered the war in the spring of 1917 and before the war's end in the fall of 1918, more than two million horsepower was added to the electric-generating capacity of the country, an increase of 10 percent in less than two years. Experts nevertheless predicted there would be a dire shortage of electrical power in the winter of 1918-1919 if the war continued (Hughes 1983, 291). Furthermore, in England, between 1914 and 1918, electrical production increased by 14 percent. This statement shows that World War I caused substantial power challenges throughout the U.S. and the world. As previously shown, Athens faced a shortage during the same time period Athens increased the size of its turbine four times its original size. There were two ways that power companies expanded to meet the new need for power. One way was to increase the size of their facilities and the other was to interconnect to other power stations. Athens chose the first choice and made it through World War I. Meanwhile, throughout Clarke County, many farms went without electric power, but that was about to change.

First of all, there were many problems associated with the way the South ran its major industries. There is little doubt about the importance of farming within Athens. Many of the early mills within Athens were cotton mills. One of the major problems that the South and Athens faced was the export of the raw materials such as cotton out of the South. Why would this be such a bad thing? After all, the South was making money off of its exports. However, there are four major problems that the South faced with exporting its' raw material North. First, exporting raw materials does not create the demand or the money of finished products. This cotton could be grown in the South, put on spools in the South, and then made into garments in the South. These products could be exported throughout the country where the South could benefit directly from these profits. Secondly, is the transportation cost of exporting the raw materials out of the state and for importing the finished products back, exacerbates the imbalance in trade. Thirdly, additional jobs created by finishing the products at home, would create a multiplier effect, as local families would spend more money purchasing other products. Lastly, the ability of the South to use its raw materials to make these products allows the wealth to stay in the South. With the addition of electricity, factories could now be built anywhere in the South. Now that the impact of farming on industrialization has been explored let us move on to see its impact on the entire nation.

At this time, the majority of the raw textile materials within the United States were located primarily within the South. On the other hand, a large percentage of the manufacturing jobs were held in the North. This set up elaborate transportation networks set up primarily by the railroads to take up the task of moving the raw materials north and the finished products south. One of the major ways that the South could prevent this tremendous loss of revenue was by electrifying much of the farming community to allow for these new manufacturing plants to spring up to finish the goods. So why did the South fail to electrify the farming community to allow for this growth in manufacturing? For one, electrifying an area is extremely expensive. The cost of wiring alone would make electrifying the countryside an extremely risky venture. Secondly, farmers lack capital to build manufacturing plants. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, Athens could barely supply the city alone much less the countryside with electricity. The power consideration prevented Athens from expanding its manufacturing plants. Again, in 1925, major drought caused Athens to deal with tremendous power shortages. Although all of these issues definitely held Athens back from industrialization, in the next session we will explore how the farm life would differ if electricity made its' appearance there.

There would be many positive aspects of industrialization if various farms became electrified. First, electrified machinery would increase productivity as mechanical power replaced human power. With this occurring, there would be increased production per man without many of the physical stresses to the body that farm labor causes. Also, there would be more conviences such as electric lighting and the purchasing of various types of appliances. With electrification of these homes, there would be a tremendously large number of families that would wish to purchase these various appliances. This dramatic increase in the purchase of appliances would greatly add to the pace of industrialization. There would also be several other factors that would add to farm life such as more chances for recreation and more interest in farm life. One of the primary benefits of power on the farm would be that many of the young people would not leave to go to the city. Farm life was extremely difficult work without the use of machinery. Dread of this harsh lifestyle caused many of the young people to move away from the farms and into the cities. The use of power could keep many of these young people on the farm and make their lives much happier. Unfortunately, it would quite some time before the farm areas received the benefits of electrification. Before the Athens Railway and Electric Company could even begin to think about supplying to these farm customers, they had to deal with their own problems.

By 1925, consumption of electricity far exceeded the available supply. The power company was in a horrible dilemma since all stations operated at full capacity under river conditions. Specifically, there was a tremendous drought that gripped the Southern United States in 1925. The company had several choices. They could cut off some consumers, build more steam plants, or to get its power supply from other sources. The president of the company, C.D. Flanigen, decided to purchase power from the Georgia Railway and Power Company. However, C.D. Flanigen saw an opportunity for himself and his company. He helped to ensure that there was a merger between these two companies and they both come under the control of Southeaster Power and Light Company. For his work in this merger, C.D. Flanigen became Vice President of Georgia Power. On November 16, 1926, The Georgia Power Company, Georgia Railway and Electric Company, Athens Railway and Electric Company, and East Georgia Power Company entered into a joint agreement of consolidation subject to the approval of stockholders, whereby all the properties, rights and franchises of each would be transferred to a new consolidated company under the name Georgia Power Company" (Wright 1957, 230). This was the perhaps the biggest step forward for Athens electrification in that Athens would be served under an extremely large corporation. Despite gaining greater access to reliable power under their merger, the people of Athens largely lost control of the operations of their service provider. More than twenty miles of high voltage cable were laid in a matter of days in 1926 to physically merge the systems of the two companies. As part of a larger system, Athens could now greatly expand into new areas, such as Bogart, Statham, Watkinsville, Winterville, Crawford, and Lexington. Although power to these cities was years away, the framework for powering them was now firmly entrenched. Furthermore, following this merger, hydroelectric plants on the Chattooga, Tugalo, and Tallulah rivers now served Athens. However, the Southeastern Power and Light Company controls power in Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee as well. Due to power shortages all companies faced from time to time, the sharing of power only made sense. If one company has a surplus of power, then they can sell this excess power to nearby companies.

This merger of power between various small companies occurred throughout the nation not just in Athens. In the early 1920s, there was a plan already formulated to link together much of the Northeastern United States into one power grid. This plan was called the Giant Power Plan, but the plan was voted down by the Pennsylvania legislature in 1926. However, the Pennsylvania Power Company built a hydroelectric plant in Maryland. This dam soon would power Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania in one large power grid. Not only were there power grids in the U.S., but there were some in Europe as well. In 1927, England began to interconnect its power systems, which was completed in 1931. Germany also began interconnecting its power systems in the early thirties. From these examples, we can see that Athens truly was not alone by interconnecting with larger companies to fulfill its' customers electrical needs.

New Deal programs changed the nature and speed of electrification nationally. Up until the mid 1930s, all electrification that took place in Athens and elsewhere in the South was private in nature. Although many of the decisions of who would power the city took place in city hall, the companies that ran the lines were based on making a profit. Many would say that things have not changed even today since the Southern Company operates under the basis of making a profit. However, in the early to mid 1930s, an event occurred which sped up the process of electrification and made this a public issue. This event was the Great Depression and the New Deal that followed ensured that rural America would no longer be in the dark. The part of the new deal that pertained to electrification was the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) which came into existence on May 11, 1935. This agency was seen as an emergency agency whose purpose was to "initiate, formulate, administer, and supervise a program of approved projects with respect to the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric energy in rural areas" (Garabidian 1977, 1). A study by the Public Works Administration (PWA) showed that in 1934 only 11% of all homes were electrified. This shows the dramatic need for power that many of these farmers faced. With electricity, the farmers could not only raise their standard of living, but they could also increase production of their farms. This increased production could allow them to better themselves further financially and in doing so they could purchase products from other individuals helping to bring the U.S. out of the great depression. Two years later on May 20, 1937,Congress appropriated 410 million dollars to a 10-year program of rural electrification. Since much of the South was impoverished, REA directed a large portion of this money into electrification of this region.

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) also contributed to furthering electrification. This agency's purpose was to dam a large portion of the Tennessee Valley especially the region near Muscle Shoals, Alabama. The results of this effort created a tremendous amount of electricity. Once Georgia Power took over in Athens; this larger company could purchase excess power from the Alabama Power Company that could directly affect Athens.

The Rural Electrification Administration set up two additional utilities within Clarke County. The first of these two new electric companies was Walton Electric Membership Corporation (EMC) that was started in 1936. This new utility was to supply electricity to the rural areas that the Georgia Power Company refused to serve, as a non-profit electric utility. Surprisingly, if this company ends up making a profit for a given year, the company gives this surplus back to the customer. However, during the mid 1930s, the EMC's were federally subsidized. Walton EMC serves ten different counties but its' headquarters is located in Monroe, which is twenty-five miles west of Athens. All of the co-ops "operate by a few certain principals: voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, limited return on capital, return of surplus to customers, autonomy and independence, education of members and cooperation among cooperatives" (Walton EMC 1999, History). The ratepayers within that county who can also voice their opinions through the annual meeting elect them. These directors whom are elected serve three-year terms and decide the business of the company. Obviously, unlike Georgia Power, Walton and Jackson EMC have strong ties to the community and look after many of the rural customers that it represents. This company's job is to ensure that the power stays on to the companies many customers and not to push rates up to make a profit.

As one can clearly see, Athens had three electric companies that served this area. Georgia Power served most of Athens, but with the addition of Jackson and Walton EMC, many of the new rural customers started with these two companies. With the merger of Athens Railway and Electric Company to Georgia Railway and Electric Company, Georgia Power took control of virtually all of the Athens market with no competition. Furthermore, Georgia Power in the mid 1930s had access to even more power than it had previously due to the TVA finishing the project at Muscle Shoals, Alabama.

However, even with this large project being completed, many rural areas were still without electricity. In fact, in 1935, only one rural home in nine in the United States had electricity. One factor that helped to slow the process of rural electrification was the great depression. That is one reason that the Muscle Shoals plant was not completed years earlier. Unfortunately for the American farmers, rural areas in America were at levels far below the average for developed countries. Countries such as Holland, Denmark, and France had rural electrification levels over 85 percent. Within the United States, the South was in the worst shape with levels less than five percent for rural areas. However, some rural areas of the West and the Northeast had levels near fifty percent. Those were the areas where many of the manufacturing jobs were located. This is one of the primary reasons why the South received a great deal of the funding. Roosevelt saw that many of the areas of the South needed desperate help in electrification.

At the same time, a New Deal program by the name of the Rural Electrification Act began to take effect. As previously stated, this program was given enormous amounts of money to ensure all people were given access to electricity. This act allowed many of the farm regions to receive the electricity that Georgia Power never would have supplied them due to the tremendous expense. Georgia Power did not have any problems with other companies supplying these regions.
Georgia Power supported the REA and not in an attempt to prevent the formation of EMCS by taking away the preferred customers. Georgia Power supported the REA, believing that if Georgia Power could not supply Rural Georgia with electricity they had no reason to stop others from doing so(Davis 1983). Furthermore, Georgia Power knew that it could sell its' excess power to these new companies and increase its' profits without the expense of laying out new power lines. By the end of the 1930s, many rural areas around Athens were electrified by the EMCs, while Georgia Power still controlled the big money base of industry in the Athens community. Georgia Power already electrified most of the preferred customers such as the industries in Athens. Georgia Power did not steal the preferred customers they just previously chose not to electrify many of the rural areas due to the increased cost. While Georgia Power was spending its' energy ensuring its' shareholders were making a profit, the local EMCs were only interested in providing their customers a service many city folk took for granted. With the success of the EMCs, the much of the region around Athens became an electrical community, within a span of 50 years.

Unfortunately, the REA did not electrify all of the rural homes in and around Athens by 1940. Nationally, by 1942, only 40 percent of all rural homes were with electricity and the South had the lowest electrification rate. With the U.S. involvement in World War II, rural electrification came to a virtual standstill until after its conclusion. This was probably due to the fact that the South started off so far behind the rest of the country. Many of the electrical jobs that were given out by the REA were given to unskilled relief workers. This caused numerous problems when the agency looked for individuals who knew all the basics about electrifying an area. This made the agency important primarily for giving out loans to the EMCs who would then see that the lines were laid. In order to receive power, many farmers laid their own lines so they would benefit from lower installation rates. The farmers had to buy books to learn how to install electricity and as a result accidents probably occurred. These EMCs were locally operated but received a great deal of money and direction from the national government at first. The government gave rural people credit so that they could purchase appliances, which totaled $180 for the first eight months that electric power was in a home. Immediately surrounding Athens, the Walton EMC company only served 360 members on an 80 mile system in 1940. By 1938, only one in twenty farms around Athens benefited from the electric companies.

Overall, Athens fit right into the spirit of electrification that was occurring in the nation. For one, the streetcars in Athens began about the same time everywhere else in the nation. In addition, the mass lighting of the streets that occurred in the 1890s was prevalent elsewhere. The supply shortages that happened due to increased consumption were commonplace and all areas were forced to adjust. World War I caused most areas to go into a shortage of electricity since everyone throughout the world were gearing up for the war effort. Following this War, a series of interconnections began occurring, which linked many parts of this country and world together. Finally, all rural areas in the U.S. were behind the rest of the world in electrical production. However, with the New Deal, many areas began to receive power especially in the South.

The electrification of Athens took fifty years with several significant turning points, that demonstrated that Athens took part in a national trend. Although these three companies finished out this analysis of Athens' electrification, there were many small companies and a few large ones that really set the electrical basis for industrialization in this community. The importance of the early mills in setting up the infrastructure for the power plants later on cannot be overemphasized enough. Furthermore, the industrial base in Athens helped to encourage the use of electricity since it was first used in the early mills for lighting. The railways in Athens and several of the early lighting companies quickly saw the benefits of using electric power and used it to their advantage. Without the early pioneers guidance in trying a new system of railways and lighting in Athens, it could have been some time longer before Athens truly experienced the wonders of electricity. From the first electric company (Athens Electric and Railway Company) to the last (Georgia Power), Athens experienced tremendous growth. Athens began with a single steam company but moved on to have three hydroelectric plants and one large steam plant. Although this growth greatly benefited Athens, it did not come without some problems with the new equipment. As always Athens persevered and these problems were quickly worked out. This tremendous growth in electricity helped to feed the fire of industrialization that ravaged the entire country. New electric products sprung up overnight and were purchased by a great deal of the population. With the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority a tremendous new power source came available for Georgia Power to use. With this additional power, Georgia Power now had enough surplus power to ensure that when these EMCs became operational, that they would have enough power to sell them. Even with these tremendous developments in power, a large number of people who lived in the farming community were still left out of this spirit of industrialization since they were lacking the one substance that made this industrialization possible. This substance was electricity, and it would not reach these rural people until the REA was established that set up many of the EMCs. Due in part to this lack of electricity, this region did not set up a large manufacturing base and lost a great deal of money to the North. However, in the end, all areas of Athens had this modern marvel called electricity, and it was good.