During the antebellum period of United States history temperance societies were experiencing growth in all areas of the country. Temperance societies were being formed from New England to the Midwest, even in Athens, GA. The people that comprised these societies came from all walks of life and for all different types of reasons. The ethnic and class makeup of these temperance societies fluctuated quite frequently as the platform of issues that the societies supported changed. The temperance societies faced opposition equal to the support they received, especially in the South. Due to resistance from some portions of Southern society the temperance movement grew at a much slower rate than in other parts of the country. Only a careful examination of the southern temperance movement and the people that comprised southern temperance societies will reveal the true reasons for this sluggish growth.
To understand the temperance societies of the antebellum period of the United States we must first examine the people that comprised these groups. In general temperance societies contained a good percentage of middle class peoples, both men and women. Societies contained people from all walks of life, especially artisans and entrepreneurs. When the societies were first formed many stated that they only wanted to limit the purchase of liquor, not wine or beer. This simple fact led to the inclusion of many people from other classes. In 1836 the national temperance movement adopted a policy called teetotalism; a policy in favor of prohibiting the sale of not only liquor, but also beer and wine. The adoption of teetotalism, which sought to prevent the consumption of wine, caused many affluent members of the temperance societies to disassociate themselves with the temperance groups. Nearly all temperance society members were also members of the Baptist or Methodist church. Today these people would be called the moral majority, they support the temperance movement on moral grounds. While some of the members of temperance societies were there on moral grounds, many others had ulterior motives. Many entrepreneurs felt that restrictions on the sale of intoxicating liquors would increase the productivity of laborers. These men pointed out that the virtuous women of Lowell were much more productive than laborers of other communities. In the north the temperance movement was closely correlated with abolitionist or anti-slavery crusaders. This fact led to slow growth and lower numbers of temperance groups in the south.
In the south the people that made up temperance societies were very similar to those in the north, aside from a few obvious exceptions.. They were middle class Christians who felt that either drink caused moral depravation or that it adversely affected the economic stability of the region. One major difference in the southern temperance movement, at least in its infancy, was the inclusion of upper class planters. These men were members because they felt that the use of alcohol caused their slaves to be less fruitful in their labor and less subservient in their demeanor. A planter named Benjamin Seabrook was quoted as saying "In reference to our colored population, I am free to admit, that the present uncertain tenure by which they are held demands our serious consideration. That their increasing insubordination is mainly to be attributed to the facility with which they are supplied with ardent spirits, I have no doubt."1 These men strongly supported the limitations of liquor sales to slaves on both moral and economic basis. When the temperance movement moved toward total prohibition these men left temperance societies in the same proportion as the rich in the north. The overall decline in the numbers of upper class southerners that were a part of the temperance movement can also be attributed to the social functions of alcohol. Many southern planters engaged in the consumption of alcohol as a way to greet guests, and wine was often consumed on a daily basis. Although many leaders of the temperance movement in the north felt that the south had fallen behind in membership and affection for the cause, the states of Virginia and Georgia each ranked in the top ten among total temperance society membership in 1831.
The people that were involved in the Athens temperance movement were similar to the members of these groups throughout the south. The local temperance society advertised its meetings in the local newspaper. They would meet in the Presbyterian Church on a semi-annual basis, and during the summer months they would often hold festivals or picnics. The group was subject to internal squabbles about the location of meetings(which eventually moved to the Methodist church) and other trivial matters. The group sent delegates to the state temperance conference in Macon, and even attempt to hold a similar conference in Athens. The conference was supposed to be held during the same week as commencement ceremonies for the University of Georgia, but failed because the local temperance society attempted to contact the other state temperance societies at to late a date. The local society entertained lecturers from other communities and was even reprimanded by another temperance group when a group of University students interrupted a lecture by a guest speaker. The temperance society that was formed in Athens was a typical representation of temperance societies throughout the south.
The temperance movement began in the south at roughly the same time as the movement began in the north. A few short months after the American Temperance Society appeared in Boston, the Virginia Society for the Promotion of Temperance was formed. Just five years later in 1831 the temperance movement was gaining support throughout the south, especially in Virginia and Georgia. These movements can trace their roots to religious organizations such as the Baptist and Methodist churches. While the initial results were promising for the spread of temperance societies throughout the south, it soon became apparent first that the number of sympathetic people to the temperance cause was far greater in the north and second that the amount of opposition to the cause was far greater in the south. In 1833 the National Temperance Convention officially admitted the fact that the south was far behind the north in both numbers and conviction. The organizers of the convention decided to change the leadership body of the temperance movement as a whole, the American Temperance Society, to the United States Temperance Union, a more loosely controlled body located in Philadelphia. This move was made in order to reduce the association between the temperance and abolitionist movements and increase southern involvement in the temperance movement.2
Numbers in the temperance societies remained fairly constant until the latter part of the 1830's. In the last few years of this decade the enrollment numbers of temperance societies fell quite dramatically, especially in the south. At first glance this decline might be attributed to the inclusion of wine and beer with the banned substances that these groups sought to restrict. Another possible reason for the diminished numbers would be the fact that many temperance societies were still strongly allied with the abolitionist movement. Upon further examination the root reason for this membership decline can be attributed to economics. The United States economy slowed down tremendously during the latter portion of the 1830's and many people that had time and money to donate to the temperance movement before had little to give at this time. When the temperance movement once again emerged very little had changed.3 The movement was revived by artisans and other middle class individuals that sought to improve the moral character of the masses. There remained both a strong following in favor of temperance reforms and a strong opposition to the temperance movement itself.
During the period of low economic support for the United States Temperance Union many other temperance societies began to form in order to fill the void left by the ATU. In Baltimore, considered a southern city at that time, a group of recovering alcoholics formed the Washingtonian temperance movement. Speakers from this society toured the southern states and received both positive and negative responses to their speeches. The Washingtonian Temperance Society began to advertise in the Southern Banner in 1842 that they were seeking additional membership and welcomed both men and women.4 Also during this period the Sons of Temperance formed in the south. This society grew quite rapidly throughout the 1840's, especially in the southern states. In Georgia the Sons of Temperance grew at a rather rapid rate, and by 1851 their numbers had reached 13,663, five percent of the total United States membership, including a society based in Athens5. This society grew throughout the south and by the mid 1850's was considered a complete success. The Sons of Temperance had shown that temperance societies could exist and even flourish in the south. The Sons went to great extent to demonstrate that they were independent of the northern abolitionist movement and were able to overcome the problems that association with abolitionists had caused in the past.
While temperance societies flourished in the United States during the antebellum period there was a great divide between the north and south. The societies that were present in both the north and the south were based on the same moral and economic principals but were sharply divided none the less. Enrollment in temperance organizations was far greater in the north than the south and attempts to improve enrollment failed until the advent of a distinctly southern organization, the Sons of Temperance. The clear reason for this discrepancy was the association of northern temperance societies with the abolitionist movement. This association led to hostility in the south toward temperance supporters and speakers. In the north temperance supporters worked diligently to export the movement south where morals were strong but enrollment was low. The 1933 National Temperance Convention articulated the problems that the movement faced. The Rev. Nathaniel Hewit stated that the anti-slavery propaganda in the American Temperance Societies journal "had embarrassed the friends of Temperance in the South." 6 Many people in attendance spoke of the fact that abolitionism had tainted the temperance movement, and more specifically the American Temperance Society, in the southern mind. Through this dialogue the conclusion was reached that the American Temperance Society would both move and change names. This is how the United States Temperance Union came to be located in Philadelphia. The name and location change were not enough to sever the abolitionist and temperance causes in the minds of most southerners, and hostility toward temperance societies and speakers grew in the South.
While many people were excited to become members of the temperance movement and others were content to simply allow the movement to continue on without any notice, others were ardently opposed to the temperance movement and hostile to those that worked to achieve its goals. The opposition to the temperance movement was most strong in the south, especially in Georgia. When one temperance advocate attempted to tour the state of Georgia in 1850 he found much opposition. Father Theobald Mathew had his invitation to tour the state revoked after his anti-slavery position became known. The Father was eventually allowed to tour the state and give his lectures after he assured state officials that he had no intentions of using his speaking engagements to attack slavery. Another example of this hostility toward temperance reformers occurred in conjunction with the 1839 state legislature election. A Methodist planter named Josiah Flournoy attempted to organize a statewide campaign to elect a legislature that was sympathetic to the temperance cause. The temperance platform was excluded from the election by each party. Flournoy was taunted by the leaders of both parties and soon the hostility turned physical. Flournoy's property was destroyed and the meetings of his society were constantly disrupted. Athens was not free from social disruption of the temperance society meetings. The February 8th edition of the Southern Banner in 1844 states that the Augusta chapter of the Washingtonian Temperance Society was upset that a speaker they sent to Athens had his speech interrupted. The editor of the Banner states that six or so students began to sneeze wildly during the speech of a Mr. Hawkins and that these same students dropped scotch snuff on the audience as well7. Hostility was the norm for temperance advocates in the South and Athens was no exception.
The temperance movement and the societies that made up this movement in Athens were quite similar to temperance societies throughout the country and the South. Beginning in 1832 there are notices placed in the Southern Banner asking anyone who wished to come to a meeting of the local temperance society. The temperance societies that were present in Athens began as a local organization but soon progressed into a chapter of a national temperance organization. The Washingtonian Temperance Society became the leading temperance agency in Athens during the 1840's.8 This society held picnics and other events such as lectures to try and attract members. They held numerous meetings in the various churches of the city. This society was later replaced with the Sons of Temperance, another temperance society9. The Sons of Temperance flourished throughout the southern states because of its lack of affiliation with the abolitionist movement. As with the other societies that were scattered throughout the South the temperance societies in Athens were faced with an irreversible connection to abolition. This connection with the anti-slavery movement hurt the recruitment of new members to the organization and created hostility toward the groups. The hostility present in Athens was no more than usual in a Southern town and aside from a little sneezing nothing of the opposition to the temperance movement is left. The moral citizens of the village of Athens continued to fight intemperance through the work of their temperance societies.
The growth and evolution of temperance societies in the South was hampered by economics and prejudice. The link between these temperance societies and the abolitionist movement in the north left an unremovable scar on the temperance movement in the South. While these societies were present the slow growth rates and strong opposition to temperance societies shows that they were fighting an uphill battle in the south. The numbers that comprised these groups fluctuated with the economy and politics that were present at the time. Nothing that these groups did could relieve the view that some southerners had that temperance and abolition were hand in hand.
1.Permanent Temperance Documents, South Carolina, p.34
2.Drink and Temperance in the South, p. 488
3.Drink and Temperance in the South, p. 491
4.Southern Banner
5.Southern Banner
6.Resolution of the convention in "National Temperance Convention," New York Observer, June 1, 1833, p. 87.
7.Southern Banner 2/8/1844
8.Southern Banner
9.Southern Banner
Ian R. Tyrrell, "Drink and Temperance in the Antebellum South: An Overview and Interpretation," The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 48 no. 4(Dec. 1988), pp485-510
R. Lawrence Moore, "Religion, Secularization, and the Shaping of the Culture of Industry in Antebellum America," American Quarterly, Vol. 41 no. 2(June, 1989), pp216-242
Graham Donald Warder, "Selling Sobriety: How Temperance Reshaped Culture in Antebellum America." University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.
"Temperance Articles," Southern Banner, 1830-1850