Looking Out for Number 1

Anthony Deckard

Looking Out for Number 1: the Louisiana Purchase and the New England Federalists

On May 1, 1803 Robert Livingston and James Monroe managed to secure the entire territory of Louisiana for about three cents an acre perhaps the best real estate deal in history. With this purchase America’s territory increased by about two fold, and the United States touched two oceans. The two envoys to France were only supposed to stop the Treaty of San Ildefonso or perhaps even secure New Orleans for the Unite States. Obviously they walked away with a much greater deal.

The repercussions were more then just added landmass to the new nation state. In effect Jefferson pushed the deal through Congress without an amendment and strengthened not only the Federal government but also more specifically the Executive branch. The real irony is not just the fact that Jefferson of all people strengthens the Federal government, but also the Federalists tried to fight it. These two parties switch their views. Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans allowed this one ideological inconsistency to slip for the good of the country; the Federalists tried to block the move because they were trying to better their own lot.

By 1803 the New England Federalists were on the way out. The Revolution of 1800 left the Federalists out in the cold. Their president had been ousted, and they lost Congress. The Federalists only managed to keep a foot hold in the Courts, which was never intended to be that strong of a branch of government. The Federalists were on the downward swing of political power and scrambled to get the scraps. These Federalists were secluded in New England, and basically the opposition to Louisiana was concentrated in the North in cities like New York and Boston. Massachusetts was in the heart of Federalists country; two of the loudest detractors of the Purchase were representatives from that state. Plain and simple these Federalists were just complaining about the Louisiana Purchase to serve themselves to reclaim the power seat.

It may seem Louisiana simply fell into Jefferson’s lap in 1803, but that was not the case. In fact after the purchase Hamilton claimed exactly that; he said that luck was the driving force behind that the steal of a deal. To state that America haggled Louisiana from France is not completely true. Robert Livingston, James Monroe, James Madison, and Thomas Jefferson all had some excellent diplomacy moves, but it is impossible to rule out the effect outside forces had on the sell. ¹

In reality, Napoleon had every intention of reestablishing France’s oversees empire specifically in North America. It started with the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The military plan was to move up through Saint Domingo then through New Orleans and finally all of Louisiana. This tried and true plan ultimately failed because quite frankly France lost on Saint Domingo. They not only had to fight a stiff opposition but also had to fend off an outbreak of Yellow Fever. In the end Napoleon could not launch a force up the Mississippi river.

As secret as the Treaty might have been, the administration caught wind of such a deal transpiring. Jefferson and Madison got a little worried because they already had a treaty with Spain for use of the Mississippi. If France controlled New Orleans then the treaty would be void; however, they were not overly concerned because they did not realize the extent of the deal between France and Spain. They simply knew a deal had gone down. The problem was New Orleans. That city controlled all the trade of the Mississippi because it was at the mouth of the mighty river. The problem for America was the new Western states relied on the Mississippi for trade. They needed the Mississippi like a fish needs water. Everything went on the Mississippi that had to do with the West; therefore, another country had a very strong influence in the economic activity of Western America. But the question of who controlled the river was unanswered. ²

To get to the bottom of this international mystery, Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to Paris and Thomas Pinckney to Madrid. Livingston presented himself to the French Court on December 6, 1801 and quickly learned Napoleon ran the whole show. The next year Livingston catches wind of France’s imperial ambitions in North America; Jefferson was not happy about that. In a brilliant move of diplomacy Jefferson wrote a letter with higher intentions of was with France if they moved to Louisiana banking on the fact French spies would intercept the letter. Because it was in a letter it could be seen as warning, if it were in a public address it would have been an insufferable outrage.³

By 1802 all eyes were on Louisiana. Back on the home front Jefferson had to deal with the Federalists and the Western states clamoring for protection. New England wanted to move in militarily to conquer New Orleans then buy it. In their eyes Napoleon would never sell such a piece of land. The Western States were clamoring for a more aggressive policy dealing with Louisiana. After all the Mississippi River was in their backyard; they would be directly affected by a French invasion. Jefferson did several things in response. For one he starts buying more Indian land adjacent to the river if it came down to war troops would have a place to stay, and to quiet the Western states he sent James Monroe to help Livingston. New England Federalists called this a weak move.⁴

There is no conclusive evidence that Napoleon’s spies ever intercepted the river, but the First Counsel did manage to catch wind of Jefferson’s staunch opposition to French occupation on North America. That coupled with losing at Saint Domingo and Anglo-Franco tensions heating up in 1803 Napoleon instructed Francois de Barbé-Marbois to negotiate the entire sale of Louisiana. ⁵

Robert Livingston and by this time James Monroe had quite a decision in front of them. There orders were to secure New Orleans and if possible Florida. Suddenly the two ministers have all of Louisiana in front of them, and they seized the opportunity. These two men saw the ability to see the benefits of all this territory. These two men walked away from France with Louisiana for fifteen million dollars.

The news reached Jefferson on July 3, 1803; Jefferson had one of the best birthday presents for the Union. Jefferson wrote to Madison “…to Messrs. Livingston and Monroe, expressly approving their obtaining Louisiana, and the sum agreed to be given for it.” America had gotten an incredible deal on some a lot of land. As mentioned before the United States touches two oceans with the purchase. More importantly the US controls the Mississippi, and no foreign power is in their backyard causing trouble and unrest. The nearest foreign opposition was either Canada or New Spain over in Arizona and California. ⁶

Even though Jefferson was very pleased with such an acquisition of land, his strict interpretation of the Constitution was bothered. The problem arose from the fact that the Constitution does not specify anywhere about the President buying new territory not already within the borders of the United States. Also a part of the treaty gave automatic citizenship to everyone living in Louisiana Purchase. Again the Constitution is silent on whether the President can grant such a thing. The problem is the fact that the Louisiana Purchase was extra-Constitutional not Unconstitutional.

Jefferson did attempt to remedy the situation by adding a Constitutional amendment to the bill. But again outside forces came into play and forced Jefferson’s hand. In August Livingston sent a dispatch to let Jefferson know that Napoleon was not happy with the trade and was looking for any reason to void like if the Senate tried to modify it. Jefferson stifled his inward opposition and moved the deal through Congress for the greater good of the Nation. When it was all said and done Jefferson had nearly doubled the size of the Union. ⁷

The Purchase did not go off without a hitch though. Jefferson had to deal with domestic squabbling along with international affairs. For a brief point in American history two parties flip flopped views over one specific issue. One party switched for the greater good of the Nation while the other party simply did it to be a thorn in the side of their enemies and to advance their cause. The Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase not for high politically ideals but to simply try and crawl back into the seat of power.⁸

At this point it might be important to clarify the difference between Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton. According to Harry L. Watson the Jeffersonians believed in strength in the population of independent farmers, planters, and artisans. Furthermore they subscribed to a strict constructionists view of the Constitution and believed in less government; therefore, they thought states should govern more because they were closer to the people’s will.⁹

The Federalists took the opposite view. Federalists supported the merchants, the industry bosses, and the bankers, namely the rich. They wanted a strong government that supported and protected American business; in effect Alexander Hamilton started American capitalism, as we know it today. ¹⁰

It is quite obvious to see that each party’s constituents had a specific region it strives in. Of course Democratic-Republicans were going to thrive in the West and South with all the farms. Jefferson was even a Southerner. Also the merchants, the bankers, the industry is up in the Northeast. So it is not a big surprise the Alexander Hamilton hailed from New York. At this time the South and the West were growing. People flooded the Northwest Territory from places like New England to get a new start with good land in new states like Ohio. Also the South is moving further towards Mississippi with Tennessee, Kentucky, and Alabama joining the Union.

Even before the Louisiana Purchase New Englanders felt the power eroding under their feet. Not only were the other regions growing but also New England lost people to these new regions. The proof was in the pudding. The Election of 1800 rolled around, and the Federalists had a resounding lost. Not only did they lose the Presidency, but also the Congress. John Adams left them a toehold by appointing a ton of Federalists to the judiciary at different levels. The election of 1800 was called the Revolution of 1800 because it was the first time power had shifted hands between two opposing forces without a shot being fired. Things looked promising for the Nation; maybe this crazy new system could work for these rebels. New England was not so optimistic.

With the Louisiana Purchase Federalists tried a lot of high-minded arguments to block the passage. Their first attack was on the unconstitutionality of the treaty. In a letter to Madison Jefferson said “… the less we say about constitutional difficulties respecting Louisiana the better….” The Federalists had a very solid argument on this point. The Constitution spoke nothing of acquiring new territory or automatic citizenship for people in that territory. ^{11
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Furthermore Federalists tried to use concern for the Union. Another popular ploy for New England was to use the logic so much territory would destroy the Union. Hamilton claimed this in his anonymous letter to the “New York Evening Post” because a government could not effectively govern that extent of land. Fisher Aimes of Massachusetts wrote into Boston’s Columbian Centinel agreeing with Hamilton’s view so much territory would pull the Nation apart. ¹³

Going hand in hand with the territory question was the question of all these new citizens. New Orleans alone was a hodgepodge of people ranging from French, Spanish, American, and English backgrounds with all sorts of jobs from sailor to merchant to tracker to frontiers man. By and large Federalists believed such a lower class of people would again tear the Union apart. This argument was brought up in both Hamilton’s and Fisher Aimes’s articles. ¹⁴

Perhaps one of the weakest attacks on the Louisiana Purchase was the attack on the price. One of the Federalists favorite moves was to break the fifteen million into different sums like being able to pay 15,000 troops for twenty-five years. But honestly the deal was amazing. The final count per acre was about three cents. Federalists would have had a hard time denying the amazing deal of that sale. ¹⁵

On August 1, 1803 the Boston Gazette raised these questions. The article first tackled the question of the population. It wanted to know if the population would accept U.S. citizenship, and everything that goes with it like taxes. Furthermore would such a rowdy crowd live harmonies in the Union? Next the article questioned the money; namely where would this money come from. The Louisiana Purchase is five million more then the yearly revenue of the Nation or so the article claimed.¹⁶

The Federalists might have used intellectual arguments, but their number one concern was themselves and how to get back into the Union. Their Constitutional question is very easy to see through. Hamilton’s plan was to occupy New Orleans militarily and then negotiate a price. In the 8^th Congress Maryland’s Nicholson called out and taunted the Federalists because they had flip-flopped their ideals. One of the basic statements of the Federalists government is strengthening the Federal Government. The Constitution mentioned nothing of the Bank of the United States yet the Federalists lined up behind Hamilton and his plan. No one in New England complained about the new Bank. ¹⁷

The Federalists also complained about the new territory and the new population. Now the Federalists might have some concern over the dissolvent of the Union because at the time transportation was very slow and arduous. It is a legitimate fear that so much land and people could be dangerous. Federalists believed that the ideal republic was bound to the ocean; they feared reckless expansion too. However there were plans in place like not admitting any new states west of the Mississippi for x amount of years. ¹⁸

The real fear was all the new territory meant new states, which meant new senators. Also all those new people would eventually mean new representatives in the House. Also yeomen were moving up to the planter class in the Southwest like Alabama and Mississippi. Even the planter class was going to the new fertile land out west. That meant more slaves, and more slaves meant more representatives in the House. Louisiana already had a major sugar plantation system set up. The South was getting stronger hand over fist. New England fought an uphill battle to get power back. They tried to spread their doctrine west but with little success. Jefferson wrote to Madison “I see the Federalist find one paper in Kentucky to which they can get what they write either here or there” (March 22, 1803). The West and South were not buying the pro business pro merchant pro industry slant New England was selling. Plain and simple to the Federalists the new territory destroyed the balance of the Union. ¹⁹

The Federalists responded with separatist talk again led by Timothy Pickering of Essex, Massachusetts. Alexander Hamilton, Fisher Aimes, and Rufus King all leaders in the Federalists party opted out of the talk because they were more devoted to the Union. Pickering stated that New England should be “exempt from the corrupt and corrupting influence of the aristocratic Democrats of the South” (p. 295). The plan was for Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Rhode Island would all leave the Union and possibly join Canada or strike out on their own. However the clutch part was that Aaron Burr had to win the New York Gubernatorial election. Such a Northern Confederacy would fail without such the powerhouse New York. Hamilton actually came out and spoke against Burr, which was a significant factor in him losing. Burr later shot Hamilton in a duel, and the separatist movement was derailed. ²⁰

The important part to note is the Federalists opted for leaving the Union because they could not get their way. This was actually the second time talking about leaving. The third time ultimately lead to their destruction because they spoke out against the War of 1812 right as news came we won or more precisely did not lose.

In all of this Massachusetts and specifically Boston supported the Federalists through the end. Boston was the capital of the state that was in the heart of the Federalists. Two of the loudest voices against the Louisiana Purchase were from Massachusetts, one even from Boston. Bostonians were a port people. They lived and died on the ocean with merchants. Furthermore New England is the start of American industrialization. Jefferson at first did not give two cents worth of industry. The Democratic-Republicans did not care about Boston’s interests.

The Federalists were the only group of people that complained about the Louisiana Purchase. Granted the party said some very important things about the treat such as the constitution question and the effects of so much new land. However the root of their complaints was not in their worry for the United States but themselves. The Federalists used smoke and mirrors to try and position their way back to the top. However the importance of Louisiana trumped their shrill complaints and Congress quickly passed the treaty through with the help of Jefferson. In 1803 the United States of America nearly doubled in size without firing a shot, and one more nail was hammered into the coffin of the Federalists.

1) Kukla, Jon A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America. New York: Borzoi Books, 2003.

2) Lewis, James E. The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History vol. II The Louisiana Purchase and It’s Aftermath. Lafayette Louisiana: Center for Louisiana Studies University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998.

3) Brinkley, Douglas “Thomas Jefferson’s Empire of Liberty.”

American History 38, no. 3 (1992) 477-490.

4) Lewis.

5) Brinkley

6) Smith, Morton James ed. The Republican Letters: the Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison 1776-1826 vol. II 1790-1804, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1995.

July 17, 1803 Jefferson to Madison.

This work is a compellation of letters between Jefferson and Madison.

7) Brinkley

8) Brinkley

9) Watson, Harry L. Andrew Jackson vs. Henry Clay,

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s (1997) 17.

10) Watson