By
Jim Collins
History 4000
My
research paper would focus on the harsh living conditions of free blacks in the
1. Blight, David W., editor. Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and
Memory. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2004.
This book discusses how kidnapping Northern free blacks became a common
practice in order to sell them into slavery. The book also discusses how free
blacks organized, petitioned, and gained support from different organizations for
free Negroes unlawfully held in bondage. This book would be useful in writing
my research paper because it helps define how free blacks feared the unlawful
loss of their freedom in the antebellum North. This book is available at the
Gwinnett County Public Library.
2. Eblen, Jack. “Growth of the Black Population in ante bellum America, 1820-1860.”
Population Studies 26, no. 2 (1972): 273-289.
This article examines America’s black population, focusing on the differences in
the lives between Northern free blacks and Southern slaves. The article contains
statistical data that could be useful in writing my research paper. This article is
available online through JSTOR.
3. Engelbert, Phillis. American Civil Rights Almanac. Editor Betz Des Chenes. Vol. 1. Detroit:
UXL, 1999.
This book describes the living conditions of Northern free blacks in the
antebellum era. This book would be useful in writing my research paper because
it describes many of the restrictions placed upon free blacks. This book is
available at the Gwinnett County Public Library.
4. Fish, Cheryl. “Voices of Restless (Dis)continuity: The Significance of Travel for Free Black
Women in the Antebellum Americas.” Women’s Studies 26, (1997): 475-495.
This article examines the travelogues of two freeborn black women (Nancy
Prince and Mary Seacole). The author describes how travel provided these women
some escape from their limited opportunities in America, however both women
were subject to the unofficial criminal status of free blackness. The article would
be helpful to me because it provides an interesting description of the treatment of
two free black women. Full article is available online through EBSCOhost
Academic Search Premier.
5. Hagedorn, Ann. Beyond the River: The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground
Railroad. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.
This book provides accounts of many different aspects of life for the free black
people. This book would be useful in writing my research paper because it
describes the abolitionist work of free blacks and the resulting attacks that
occurred from that effort. This book is available at the Gwinnett County Public
Library.
6. Hancock, Scott. “The Elusive Boundaries of Blackness: Identity Formation in Antebellum
Boston.” The Journal of Negro History 84, no. 2 (1999): 115-129.
This article describes the fight for segregation of African Americans into the
Boston public school system. The article would be helpful to my research because
it helps describe the state of education for free blacks in the North. This article is
available online through JSTOR.
7. Harris, Leslie M. In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626-1863.
Chicago: U Chicago P, 2003.
This book provides a historical account of the life of blacks in New York City
between 1626-1863. The book describes the African American’s struggle for
freedom and equality, including how different groups of black New Yorkers dealt
with the white supremacy movement. This book would be useful in writing my
research paper because it provides a well-rounded look at the struggles of free
blacks in an urban environment. This book is available at the University of
Georgia Library.
8. Hewitt, John H. “Mr. Downing and His Oyster House: The Life and Good Works of an
African American Entrepreneur.” American Visions 9, no. 3 (1994): 22-27.
This article is an interesting account of how an African American man ran a
successful and respected restaurant in New York City between 1830 and 1860.
The article would be helpful to my research because it provides a rare example of
how a free African American became a thriving and wealthy entrepreneur. Full
article is available online through EBSCOhost Academic Search Premier.
9. Hodges, Graham R. Slavery and Freedom in the Rural North: African Americans in
Monmouth County, New Jersey, 1665-1865. Madison, WI: Madison House, 1997.
This book describes the life of free blacks in rural New Jersey farm communities,
and how New Jersey never really emancipated all slaves. This book would be
useful because it provides a number of perspectives of black life in the North.
This book is available at the University of Georgia Library.
10. Horton, James Oliver and Lois E. Horton. Black Bostonians: Family Life and Community
Struggle in the Antebellum North. New York: Holmes & Meyer, 1979.
This book describes the life of African Americans in Boston, focusing on the
urban conditions and roots of modern urban racial problems. This book is a
valuable resource as it describes the evolution of black social clubs and the
importance of the church to the black community. This book is available at the
University of Georgia Library.
11. Horton, James Oliver. Free People of Color: Inside the African American Community.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution P, 1993.
This book describes the union and separation of black communities in the
antebellum era. Horton entertains the idea that because Northern blacks were
so preoccupied with their own survival, they had little time to be involved with
issues of slavery. This book is a useful resource because it provides
comprehensive arguments of sensitive issues that directly impacted the life of
Northern free blacks. This book is available at the University of Georgia Library.
12. Horton, James Oliver and Lois E. Horton. In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and
Protest Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700-1860. New York: Oxford University P, 1997.
This book focuses on the culture, race, and class of Northern free blacks and the
evolution of the black community. This book is useful because it provides
experiences from both male and female blacks. This book is available at the
University of Georgia Library.
13. Johnson, Michael P. “Free People of Color.” Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Paul
Finkelman and Joseph C. Miller, editors. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998.
This article defines the rules that governed what constituted a newborn child as
being free versus enslaved. The article also provides useful information about
how blacks obtained their freedom through self-purchase or manumission, and
what their life was like after achieving freedom. This book is available at the
Gwinnett County Public Library.
14. Lawrence-McIntyre, Charshee C. “Free Blacks: A Troublesome and Dangerous Population in
Antebellum America.” Dissertation SUNY, 1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1984. 8527923.
This academic dissertation focuses on how and why free blacks were viewed by
much of white society as a danger to the nation. This book is a valuable resource
because it explores (in great detail) the living and social conditions of free blacks
in the North. The book also contains a well-documented bibliography. This book
is available at the University of Georgia Library.
15. Litwack, Leon F. North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860. Chicago:
U Chicago P, 1961.
This is one of the most important reference tools I found in describing the life and
conditions of the Northern free black. Litwack provides an extensive examination
of the North’s legal, political, educational, and economic environments. Litwack
describes these elements, combined with society’s overwhelming attitude of white
supremacy, to illustrate how the lives of free blacks were impacted. This book is
available at the University of Georgia Library.
16. Masur, Louis P. 1831: Year of Eclipse. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001.
This book describes how the effects of slavery and abolition fueled the growing
turmoil between the Northern and Southern states, primarily during the year 1831.
This book is a helpful resource, as it contains accounts of what life and society
was like for the Northern free black. This book is available at the University of
Georgia Library.
17. Salvatore, Nick. We All Got History: The Memory Books of Amos Webber. New York: Times
Books, 1996.
This is an excellent book that provides the first-hand accounts of Amos Webber, a
freeborn black from Pennsylvania. In 1854, Webber began logging the
temperature twice daily in his memory book. These logs grew to include notes
about local news and events, which included his moral perceptions of society.
This book is an extremely useful resource because it provides an account of what
life was actually like from the perspective of a free black man. This book is
available at the University of Georgia Library.
18. Trotter, Joe William, Jr., and Eric Ledell Smith, editors. African Americans in Pennsylvania:
Shifting Historical Perspectives. University Park: Pennsylvania State UP, 1997.
This book provides a historical account of free blacks in antebellum Pennsylvania.
The book also explores the living and working conditions of the free black, and
the importance of the church in the black community. This book would be useful
in writing my research paper because it provides a well-rounded look at the
struggles of free blacks in the North. This book is available at the University of
Georgia Library.
19. White, Shane. Stories of Freedom in Black New York. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2002.
This book provides a historical account of the life of blacks in New York City
during the 1820’s and 1830’s, including a study of the rise and fall of the African
Theatre Company. This book would be useful in writing my research paper
because it provides a well-rounded look at the struggles of free blacks in an urban
environment. Especially interesting are the accounts of how free blacks
participated in the performing arts, which became an important part of their
everyday lives. This book is available at the University of Georgia Library.
20. Whitman, T. Stephen. “Self-Purchase.” Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Paul
Finkelman and Joseph C. Miller, editors. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster
Macmillan, 1998.
This article describes the rules of self-purchase and how freed people could assist
in obtaining the freedom of an enslaved individual. This article is helpful because
it describes the risks involved for blacks, as the courts did not legally recognize
the right of self-purchase. This book is available at the Gwinnett County Public
Library.
21. Wilson, Harriet E. Our Nig. New York: Random House, 1983.
This book studies racial prejudices against the Northern free black, and examines
why race prejudices in northern states were so extreme. This book is useful
because it explores the impact of prejudice upon free blacks. This book is
available at the University of Georgia Library.
1. Abdy, Edward S. Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States of North America
from April, 1833 to October, 1834. London: J. Murray, 1835.
This book provides a thorough account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences
with blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the
real-life accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available at the
University of Georgia Library.
2. Barnes, Gilbert H., and Dwight L. Dumond, editors. Letters of Theodore Dwight Weld,
Angelina Grimké Weld and Sarah Grimké, 1822-1844. New York: D. Appleton, 1834.
This compilation of letters by Negro leaders provides important information about
Negro actions and the Northern state of affairs, as well as the abolitionists’
position towards the Negro. This book is available at the University of Georgia
Library.
3. Bell, Andrew. Men and Things in America; Being the Experience of a Year's Residence in
the United States, in a Series of Letters to a Friend. London: W. Smith, 1838.
This book provides an account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences with
blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the real-life
accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available on microform
at the University of Georgia Library.
4. Chambers,
William. American Slavery and Colour. London: W. & R. Chambers,
1857.
This book provides an account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences with
blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the real-life
accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available on microform
at the University of Georgia Library.
5. Chambers,
William. Things as They Are in America. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1854.
This book provides an account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences with
blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the real-life
accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available on microform
at the University of Georgia Library.
6. Clarke, James Freeman. “Condition of Free Colored People of the United States.” The
Christian Examiner 66, no. 4 (1859): 246-265.
This article by an abolitionist is a resource that provides insight to the conditions
of the free Negro’s general circumstances during the antebellum era. The
microform of this book is available via an interlibrary loan from the Library of
Congress.
7. The Colored American (New York) 12 August 1837; 7 March 1840; 13 February 1841.
This African American newspaper covers the cultural life and history of the
antebellum era Negro. Articles are easily obtained online with the Accessible
Archives, Inc., database through UGA’s Galileo service.
8. Freedom’s Journal (New York) 8 June – 24 August 1827.
This African American newspaper covers the cultural life and history of the
antebellum era Negro. Articles are easily obtained online with the Accessible
Archives, Inc., database through UGA’s Galileo service.
9. Garrison, William L. An Address, Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in
Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831. Boston:
Printed by Stephen Foster, 1831.
William L. Garrison’s speech could be used to interpret the mood of abolitionist
society towards the free Negro. Garrison’s goal was to rally blacks and
abolitionists toward a common goal of freedom. Speech transcript is available on
microform at the University of Georgia Library.
10. Garrison, William L. William Lloyd Garrison and the Fight Against Slavery: Selections from
The Liberator. William E. Cain, editor. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press,
1995.
This book is a compilation of articles from Garrison’s newspaper, The Liberator.
This resource provides valuable insight into Garrison’s ideological beliefs of total
abolition of racism and slavery, including his views of the conditions in which the
free Negro lived. This book is available at the University of Georgia Library.
11. Hamilton, Thomas. Men and Manners in America. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1833.
This book provides an account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences with
blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the real-life
accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available on microform
at the University of Georgia Library.
12. Lipscomb, Andrew A. North and South, Impressions of Northern Society Upon a Southerner.
Mobile, AL: Carver & Ryland, 1853.
This book provides an account of a Southerner’s impression of Northern society
in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate a Southerner’s
thoughts about the Northern Negro freedoms. This book is available at the
University of Georgia Library.
13. Marryat, Captain Frederick. A Diary in America
with Remarks on its Institutions. London:
Longman,
Orme, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1839.
This book provides an account of a foreign traveler’s actual experiences with
blacks in antebellum America. This resource can be used to illustrate the real-life
accounts of life as a free black in the North. This book is available at the
University of Georgia Library.
14. The National Era (Washington, D.C.) 23 February – 22 March 1860.
This African American newspaper covers the cultural life and history of the
antebellum era Negro. Articles are easily obtained online with the Accessible
Archives, Inc., database through UGA’s Galileo service.
15. The North Star (Rochester, New York) 24 March 1848; 17 November 1848; 5 December 1850.
This African American newspaper covers the cultural life and history of the
antebellum era Negro. Articles are easily obtained online with the Accessible
Archives, Inc., database through UGA’s Galileo service.
16. The Pennsylvania Gazette 5 March 1751; 17 January 1776; 25 November 1789.
This African American newspaper covers the cultural life and history of the
antebellum era Negro. Articles are easily obtained online with the Accessible
Archives, Inc., database through UGA’s Galileo service.
17. Yates, William. Rights of Colored Men to Suffrage, Citizenship and Trial by Jury.
Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838.
This book by an abolitionist is a resource that provides insight to the conditions
of the free Negro’s general circumstances during the antebellum era. The
microform of this book is available at the University of Georgia Library.