Elena Churmachenko

History 4000

Summer 2005

Before the Civil War Lowell was the leading center of the textile production in the nation. It was the largest center in terms of capital investment, workers employed, and cloth produced. It was also the center of innovation: the basic technology, organization of production, and systems of housing, wage payment, and work discipline adopted by the Lowell set the pace for, and was representative of the most rapidly growing and innovative sector of the industry. Due to the rise of the cotton textile industry in the years between 1820 and 1860, large numbers of young, single women left their parents homes to work in the expanding mill towns. Women were employed for an average of 12 hours a day, 6 days a week, 309 days a year. With only three holidays, Fast Day in the spring, the Fourth of July, and Thanksgiving. However employment in the mills enabled women to enjoy social and economic independence unknown to their mother’s generation.

Secondary Sources

Brigham, Loriman S.

An Independent Voice: A Mill Girl form Vermont Speaks her Mind.”
Vermont History (1973), 41:142-46

This is an article where a girl that is working in a mill writes a letter to cousin (who is a schoolmarm). She discusses how hard the work is (making wagon cushions and weaving cloth). Additionally, she discusses her dislike for the church-going hypocrites. This resource would be an excellent resource to use as background material for my research paper. This article gives a direct accounting (as re-told by the author) of the working conditions as viewed by the actual Lowell factory employees.

This article is owned by UGA library, and is available to view on ‘Main 4^th floor’. Call number F46 .V55. This will take one day to obtain.

Coburn, Frederick W.

History of Lowell and its People, vol. 1. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, 1920

This book is a comprehensive history of the Lowell factory system, and of the people that worked there. It includes first hand accounts of management, as well as factory employees. This book describes working conditions, living conditions, and the daily routines of Lowell factories. I would use this book as one of my primary guides when describing how the Lowell factory attracted employees, and how those employees lived and worked. This is a good reference because it is one of only the only references I could find that discussed management as well as ordinary working women.

This book is located at the Library of Congress. Call number F74.L9 C65. This book is available for loan through the University Library System. This will take one day to obtain.

Dalzell, Robert F.

The Rise of the Waltham-Lowell System and Some Thoughts on the Political Economy of Modernization in Antebellum Massachusetts.

Perspectives in American History (1975), 9:229-68

This article discusses the reasons that the capital market shifted from sea to land from 1815 to 1860. It discusses social and political changes that accompanied economic development, specifically as it pertains to the Walthan-Lowell system of factory production. This article contains numerous notes (76), and I would expect that many of these notes would give valuable insight to the broad view of why and how the Lowell factory system prospered.

This article is owned by UGA library, and is available to view on ‘Main 4^th floor’. Call number E171 .P4. This will take one day to obtain.

Dublin, Thomas.

Gender and Textiles: A Personal Overview.

Material History Bulletin [Canada] 1990 (31): 75-78.

This journal article offers an overview of the growing influence of a concern for gender in the research and writing of the

book Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860. The article notes the concepts used in examining the place of outwork weaving and the history of textiles in the American countryside in early 19^th century. This relates directly to the topic of my paper, and I believe this would be a valuable resource when discussing gender differences at the Lowell factories.

This article is available through the Canadian History Information Network CHIN. Canadian Heritage Information Network
15 Eddy Street, (15-4-A)
Gatineau, Quebec
Canada K1A 0M5

Copies are available for (Canadian $5 per page)

Dublin, Thomas.

Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826-1860.

This is a comprehensive book that describes every aspect of work at the Lowell factories. This book contains information about living conditions, recruiting, and working in one of these factories. Additionally, it discusses the impact of the Lowell factories on the surrounding community. I would use this book to answer questions that would arise concerning the women that were drawn to work in the factories, and how their lives were affected. Also, this book gives a good insight to how society was changed during the industrial revolution.

I already own this book.

Dublin, Thomas.

Farm to factory : women's letters, 1830-1860

New York : Columbia University Press

This book is a compilation of letters written by and between women that worked in factories between 1830 and 1860. These letters are organized by topic, and have been annotated by

Dublin. I believe this book would provide good reference material when discussing family and friends of employees at the Lowell factories.

This book is available at Georgia Perimeter College, Clarkston Campus, Call number HD6073.T42 U53. This will take one day to obtain.

English, Walter.

The Textile Industry: An Account of the Early Invention of Spinning, Weaving, and Knitting Machines. London: Longmans, Green, 1969

This book is an excellent resource that describes the invention of several machines related to the textile industry. The author tells about the history of several important inventions including spinning wheels, automated weaving machines (as used in factories), and knitting machines. This book also talks about the workers in factories and at home, describing the conditions that they endured.

This book is available from the Georgia Institute of Technology Library, Call number TS1525 .E53. This will take one day to obtain.

Primary Sources

Baird, Robert H.

The American Cotton Spinner, and Managers’ and Carders’ Guide: A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning.

Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1851

This book is about comprehensive details on warp roof, belting mechanical aspects, carding, ginning, speeding, throttles, spinning, wages clocks, & more. I would use this book to talk about the equipment used and what improvements to equipment were done at that time.This book can be found on the Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America website and I would make a purchase. It takes 5 to 10 days for the books to arrive.

Miles, Henry A.

Lowell As It Was and As It Is. Lowell: Powers and Bagley, 1845

This book is about Lowell's transformation in the 1830s into a famous textile city. With sketches of companies, a profile of a boarding house, a look at working conditions, and fascinating minutiae such as the schedule of mealtimes for workers. I would use this book to write about the transformation of the city and

working conditions. This book can be found on the Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America website and I would make a purchase. It takes 5 to 10 days for the books to arrive.

Montgomery, James.

A Practical Detail of the Cotton Manufacture of the United States of America. Glasgow : John Niven, 1840.

The book is about an emigrant to the United States from Scotland, who was a superintendent in the factories. He argues here that improved management techniques could by itself increase profits without further investment ("by committing the charge of their Factories to competent persons, immense savings might yet be effected, of which they seem in general not to be aware.” (Pg.8)) I would use this book to write about the management style and how it could have been improved to benefit the company.

This book can be found on the Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America website and I would make a purchase. It takes 5 to 10 days for the books to arrive.