Myth and History Intertwined: The History of the WPA Slave Narratives

Albert Browne

 

The experience of African Americans in the South has been a tumultuous one ranging from the brutal torture of slavery to the humiliation of segregation.  As the institution of slavery crumbled in the South after the Civil War, the focal point of Reconstruction centered on the role of newly freed blacks’ assimilation in to the free world.  The dynamic between ex-slaves and a white population embedded with the ideology that blacks were naturally inferior marks this controversial period.  In the midst of the Great Depression, the newly formed Works Progress Administration (WPA) conducted interviews of former slaves.  The WPA hired white-collar, politically connected, well-educated people out to meet and interview these former slaves.  Through these narratives a greater understanding of not only slave life, but also societal differences in the Jim Crow South was formed.

The Great Depression ravaged the national economy during the 1920s and 30s.  The Roosevelt Administration in an effort to produce jobs and boost morale developed sweeping legislation he coined “The New Deal.”  A wide range of programs were developed.  One facet of the New Deal was further development of the cultural arts.  The WPA came into existence originally to write travel guides for every state and popular destination.  The ex-slave interviews however, became the lasting legacy of the WPA.

The New Deal allowed state and local branches of government to determine their own hiring practices.1  More often than not these jobs went to people with education, connections, and opportunity.  A stark contrast usually developed between the interviewer and the interviewee.  This became part of the interesting subplot of the slave narratives.  Emily Powell was an interviewer who combined all the necessary requirements to land a job in the WPA.  Emily Bealle Powell was born June 28, 1883 in South Carolina.  The daughter of Dr. Joshua and Mary Bowles Powell grew up on a plantation in Edgefield County.2  The daughter of a highly successful doctor allowed Emily certain privileges of this time, including the ability to attend college at an elite private school.  Emily was an honor graduate from Bessie Tife College.  Emily later married Adrian W. Powell from North Carolina.  They settled in Augusta, Georgia where they met.  Adrian was a clerk for the Georgia Railroad.  They had one daughter together who they also named Emily Bealle.  Adrian died suddenly in the early 1900s leaving Emily widowed at an early stage in her life.  The elder Emily never remarried.  She remained in Augusta but changed addresses no less than five times in a span of twenty years.3  Powell’s occupation outside of the WPA also is a bit of a mystery.  Her obituary states that Ms. Powell was a retired school teacher; yet in the 1930 census her occupation was listed as a salesperson at a local department store. 4  Emily was also a very religious woman; she was a member of the First Baptist Church of Augusta and was actively involved in the Mizpah Bible Class.  Emily eventually passed away from an extended illness on May 6, 1968.5  Emily Powell wrote several slave narratives but perhaps none more interesting than that of Fannie Jones.  To further understand the interesting relationship between Powell and Jones, let us take a closer look at the WPA and the racially charged environment of the Jim Crow South.

The WPA Slave Narratives contained 2,194 interviews completed from 1936-1938.  The program was headed up by John Lomax.  His tenure was brief, but it had a lasting impact.  The notion to do slave narratives originally came from Dr. Lawrence Reddick, a Kentucky State College professor.  While his idea was strong on merit, the pilot program failed because of a lack of qualified personnel to carry out the interviews.6  Ironically, this notion would also plague the WPA and their interview process.  Reddick was part of a movement being brought forth by a new generation of Negro scholars.  These black intellectuals sought to find a useable past.  Their goal, to bring identity and more importantly, self respect to the black population.  They also wanted to do away with the old notions of slavery.  Of particular interest to these scholars were the views of Ulrich B. Phillips.  Phillips wrote American Negro Slavery, a book in which he perpetuates many of the same pro-slavery ideals heard thirty years earlier.  Phillips attempted to minimize the injustices of slavery by noting that most slaves were better off on the plantation than they were being freedmen.  He also perpetuated that paternalistic ideology of slave owners that blacks were submissive and childlike.  As Phillips tried to further validate the “plantation myth,” he reasoned that not only were blacks better off than their Northern wage earning brethren, but also slave owners should be credited for civilizing and Christianizing negroes.7

The reasoning Phillips used in his book closely mirrored those of popular America.  Phillips’ views became a galvanizing force.  After the end of World War I racism was prevalent in the United States.  White Anglo Saxons convinced themselves they were the superior race in the world.  This ideology covered dominance in everything.  Physical toughness and mental superiority were the two prevalent ideas.  Other races particularly African Americans were viewed as having innate inherited inferiority and weakness.  Surprisingly, this notion was also popular in intellectual circles.  This was the racial mindset of not only the country, but particularly the Jim Crow South in the early twentieth century.8

Radical Reconstruction in the South was a slow and challenging process.  Particularly for newly freed blacks who left to now try and make it on their own.  Freedom, the goal for so long was now tangible.  Racial tension in the South was everywhere.  In 1892, the passage of Jim Crow Laws formalized racial segregation.  African Americans were caught in a state of limbo, they were no longer slaves yet they struggled to be acknowledged as citizens.  Political disfranchisement was enacted to keep blacks out of the political arena.  New literary test to determine voting ability combined with newly popular white only primaries essentially locked blacks out of the political process.9

African Americans faced increased racial violence in the form of beatings and lynching.  Lynching became a popular practice.  From 1931 through 1935, there were more than 70 lynching throughout the South.  Perpetual debt, restricted travel, and widespread segregation were common annoyances blacks had to deal with.  With nowhere else to turn, African Americans dealt with their fears by going to church and holding onto their faith.10

The plight of blacks in the Jim Crow South was obvious in almost every town.  Augusta, Georgia was no different.  To understand the unique situation of Augusta requires a brief history.  Augusta was founded in 1763 by General James Oglethorpe.  Nestled along the bank of the Savannah River in East Central Georgia, Augusta was home to huge cotton growing plantations.  With fertile soil and river at hand, master planters set up large plantations.  By 1845, there were over 3,000 slaves in the Augusta population.  Richmond County would have one of the largest slave populations in the South at the onset of the Civil War.  Ironically though, many Augustans were reluctant to secede from the union.  In the election of 1860, Augustans overwhelmingly voted for Stephen Douglas and John Bell.  The candidates, who opposed to Breckenridge, were not in favor of secession.  Augusta’s neighbor to the east proved to be too persuasive.  South Carolina seceded in 1860 after Abraham Lincoln wont the presidential election and heavily pressured every southern state to join them, including Georgia.  Georgia seceded later that year, shortly thereafter opening shots were fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina and thus the Civil War began.11

Emily Powell’s subject Fannie Jones lived her entire life in Augusta.  Fannie claimed to be born in 1853.  She grew up on a typically large plantation, like those found in Augusta during this time.  According to Fannie, there were hundreds of slaves.  Fannie thought the “Masa” was very good to her.  The interview even goes on to say Fannie cried when she had to leave the plantation.  The question of  Fannie’s loyalty to the plantation and her “Masa” brings up some of the complaints and controversies of the slave narratives.12

The process of interviewing slaves is hotly debated by historians.  Historians like John Blassingame have critiqued the validity and historical significance of the WPA ex-slave narratives.  The interviewing process, the choice of interviewer, and the edited material that actually remained in the narratives are all controversial.  Blassingame in particular points to four main weaknesses he feels exists.

First, the staff hired by the WPA clearly had no experience with the interviewing process.  Many interviewers showed a lack of respect by referring to ex-slaves as darkeys or niggers.  Some interviewers simply lacked the education to complete such a daunting task.13

A second major weakness pointed out was the fact the interviews were not verbatim accounts.  Certain portions of interviews could have been doctored to acquire more of a conventional answer, or the “right” answer as the case may be.  Because these interviews did not take place in a vacuum, most every account has to be taken with at least a grain of salt.  It is impossible to think that past experiences did not preclude former slaves from holding back pieces of information.  Slaves had to be naturally cautious in most situations because they more than likely lived in the same area as their ex-master’s family members.14

The third major weakness pointed out were the limitations imposed by the age of slaves.  By the early 1930s, two-thirds of ex-slaves were at least eighty years old.  With their memories fading, older slaves were at best a risky proposition to interview.  Therefore, most of the slaves interviewed only knew of slavery when they were children.  Many times childhood recollections would not and could not have the same depth or effect as memories from older slaves could.  Many of the ex-slaves interviewed did not know what it was like to spend most of your adult life in bondage.  Another interesting side-note to this particular dilemma is the question of accessibility to ex-slaves.  It is also conceivable that those slaves who lived past the age of 50 (the average age of slaves in this day) were well treated.15

The final complaint Blassingame notes is the skewed sampling of interviews in regards to geography.  For example, the states of Virginia, Missouri, Maryland, Kentucky, and Delaware contained nearly a quarter of all slaves in 1860.   These states however, only make up seven percent of the interviews.  Conversely, Arkansas and Texas contained only seven percent of the slaves in 1860.  These two states however make up a whopping 45% of all narratives.16

Using Blassingame’s arguments to examine the narrative of Fannie Jones, it is easy to find possible flaws in the narration.  Did Fannie love the plantation because she was young and did not fully understand yet the rigors and terror of slavery?  Perhaps Emily Powell doctored some of the answers to achieve a story conducive to her and more importantly her editor’s wishes.  The Slave Narratives are an excellent window into the life of slaves, but as Blassingame points out, they can not always be taken at face value.

Blassingame also recognizes the shortcomings that go along with trying to study WPA data from a historical perspective.  The interview process as a whole is much more difficult to grasp for historians than the traditional written word History is centered around.  The slave narratives stayed very much in slave dialect.  Therefore, interpreting “oral love” provides the historian with an all new set of challenges.

The race and gender of interviewers in their ability to gather information must also be examined.  Black interviewers were excluded from WPA staffs in all Southern states except Virginia, Louisiana, and Florida.  Blassingame  notes, “Discrimination in employment led to discrimination of information.”  To further expound on this point look at the case of the South Carolina narratives.  Interviewers were mostly white men who clearly did not elicit the kind of “true” answers given to women and blacks.  Attitudes as a whole is much more difficult to grasp for historians than the traditional written word History is centered around.  The slave narratives stayed very much in slave dialect.  Therefore, interpreting “oral love” provides the historian with an all new set of challenges.

The race and gender of interviewers in their ability to gather information must also be examined.  Black interviewers were excluded from WPA staffs in all Southern states except Virginia, Louisiana, and Florida.  Blassingame  notes, “Discrimination in employment led to discrimination of information.”  To further expound on this point look at the case of the South Carolina narratives.  Interviewers were mostly white men who clearly did not elicit the kind of “true” answers given to women and blacks.  Attitudes

such as; most slaves were well treated, rarely overworked, and longed for the good ol’ plantation days are all sentiments commonly found in the South Carolina narratives.  This mentality seems to also be alive and well in the Fannie Jones interview.17

            On the other hand, a staff of ninety- percent women handled the Georgia interviews.  These women were usually able to build a certain trust with the ex-slaves.  Resulting in more honest responses by and large, many historians believe the Georgia collection is one of the most reliable of all WPA volumes.  Louise Oliphant, a Georgia narrator puts it best;

 

                        “There are many ex-slaves who have vivid recollections of the days when

                          their lives were inseparable bound to their masters and the watchdog

                          overseers is outstanding in the memory of most of them.”18

 

            To just focus on the problems of the WPA interviews would be a great disservice to this important collection.  The legacy of these interviews are the stories that come as close as you can get to the horrors of slavery.  The WPA provided incomparable information in regards to religious and secular songs.  It provides in many cases the only genealogical data of the slave families.  The reader also gets the interesting version of slave dialect not often seen in written history.19

            The WPA narratives also show the struggle of ex-slaves during the Great Depression.  The impact slave narratives play in understanding the Depression is critical.  Most of these ex-slaves spent the rest of their days in a state of destitution and dependency.  They endured poor living conditions, a lack of food, and a tired and broken body from the ware of slavery.  Most of these people had no choice but to live upon the aid of family or government officials.20

            The most pressing need for ex-slaves during the Great Depression was a lack of food.  It is widely chronicled that most slave diets were poor and minimal.  For these people to complain now is a true indication of just how dire the situation was.  For so many slaves who worked on a plantation the ability to grow and hunt for food became a way of life.  With ex-slaves now relegated to living in town that option was no longer available.21

            Fannie Jones’ life after slavery was very similar to those echoed in the other narratives.  She struggled to eke out an existence, recalling her last real meal almost one week ago.  The Depression had robbed her of opportunity and slavery had taken her health.  Fannie had eleven children but all but two of them had passed away.  Powell noted that Fannie’s house was very dark and very dirty.  Ironically, Emily Powell also found herself in living conditions that weren’t ideal.  In 1930, Emily lived in a cheap rented house in downtown Augusta with her fifteen-year-old daughter.  A far cry from the palatial landscape in South Carolina she grew up in.  The Depression touched nearly everyone.22

For those unable to work there was always the hope of relying on family members.  Unfortunately, for many families the Depression was a scattering influence.  People traveled all over the country looking for work wherever they could find it.  This phenomenon became known as the “Great Migration.”  From the years 1914-1930 more than one million people left the South.23

State and national governments proved ineffective in trying to address the problems of the poor and destitute during this time.  Federal pensions were crucial for many ex-slaves.  Title I dictated that the state would decide the practicality of providing financial assistance.  Title II explicitly excluded domestic and agricultural laborers from receiving aid.  Of course this provision immediately excluded the overwhelming majority of African American workers.24

The Roosevelt Administration did make attempts to help poor blacks during the Great Depression.  His administration proved more responsive to the needs and demands of the black population.  Discrimination still existed in New Deal legislation.  Black participation in the progress was mostly token.  Token however, was still better than the indifference of previous administrations.25

In regards to the WPA Jerold Hirsch wrote, “the Federal Writer’s Program romantic approach to history can be understood better as myth than ideology.”  Unfortunately for ex-slaves trying to make it during the Great Depression there was nothing mythic or romantic about their lives.  The struggle for food and a place to live wore down many people and destroyed many dreams.  The ideology of segregation and racism made life extremely difficult.  For ex-slaves like Fannie Jones and blue bloods like Emily Powell the struggle to survive took great courage.  The WPA slave narratives brought people together who lived on opposite spectrums and sometimes there was a connection made.  The slave narratives successfully conveyed not only the awfulness of slavery but also the perpetual struggle for respect in the Jim Crow South.  It serves as a living, breathing piece of Americana.  History to be appreciated and studied but also critiqued.  Celebrated for its story while also held to a standard of judgment all history must pass.

1 Sharon Ann Musher, “Contesting the Way the Almighty Wants It,” American Quarterly 53, No. 1 (2001):  7

2 Obituary, Augusta Chronicle, 8 May 1968, Sec. D, p. 10

3Augusta City Directory

4 Augusta Census, 1930.

5 Obituary, Augusta Chronicle

6 John Blassingame, “Using the Testimony of Ex-Slaves:  Approaches and Problems”,

Journal of Southern History 41, no.4 (1975):  480-81.

7 Norman R. Yetman, “The Background of the Slave narrative Collection”,

American Quarterly 19, no.3 (1967): 536, 542.

8 Yetman, 536.

9 Yetman, 539.

10 Yetman, 538.

11  Julia Mary Walsh, Horny Handed Sons of Toil Workers, Politics, & Religion in Augusta, Georgia 1880-1910. (Ann Arbor: UMI Co., 1999) 329

12  “Works Progress Administration: Ex-Slave Narratives”, memory.loc website accessed March 1, 2004

13 Blassingame, “Using the Testimony of Ex-Slaves” 482-483

14 Blassingame, 484.

15 Blassingame, 485.

16 Blassingame, 486.

17 Blassingame, 489.

18 Blassingame, 488.

19 Blassingame, 490.

20 Stephanie J Shaw, “Using the WPA Ex-Slave Narratives to Study the Impact of the Great Depression”, Journal of Southern History 69, 623-627.

21 Shaw, 652-653.

22 Memory.loc website.

23 Shaw, 650.

24 Shaw, 652-653.

25 Yettman, 546.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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