Through the course of Southern history there have been many bright, shining moments; moments that have uplifted society, making Southerners proud of their heritage. There are others, however, that they wish had never come to pass. In a society that is now filled with cultural and technological advancements, it is difficult to believe that just thirty-five years ago, human beings were not allowed to go to certain schools based on the color of their skin. Today, most students, white and black, probably do not stop to consider how this came about. The desegregation of schools was a difficult transition in most parts of the South. Coffee County, in Southeastern Georgia, was no exception. This is the story of the process of desegregation in Coffee County in the late 1960's. In studying these events, maybe we, as a society, can gain a better understanding of this period of history and come to grips with the ugliness of racism that surrounded the issue.
Race relations have always been an issue in the South. From slavery to modern discrimination, whites and blacks in the South have always played pivotal roles in each others lives. While racism has been around from the very beginning, segregation specifically, was something that came about in the 1890’s. With the rise of Jim Crow laws, black people were not allowed to use the same facilities as whites. In the 1896 court case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the “separate but equal” rule was adopted. This forced African Americans to use separate facilities that were hardly equal. The courts made legal the practice of segregation stating that, “the legislation is powerless to eradicate racial instincts”. White Southerners set in stone this idea of there being a color line and the consequences of crossing it. Naturally this was the case with the school system. On May 17, 1954 with the case of Brown v. the Board of Education, the Supreme Court decided that state sponsored segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Although this case was a giant step in the civil rights movement, it would be approximately another fifteen years before much of the South, including Coffee County, would actually succumb to its ruling.1
Segregation in the public school system has a long and troubled history. The issue, for most white Southerners in the 1960's, was always an "extraordinarily problematic matter". White Southerners had fears that were not unlike their ancestors from one-hundred years before. They feared "social mixing, dating, and even marriage". One view was, “When they (blacks) learn to spell dog and cat, they throw away the hoe.” Coffee County columnist E.R. Bradley wrote of local race relations, "there is little real communication between white and black". He then sums up the general attitude of the African American of this period by saying that “the Negro is tolerated, not accepted; that he is the last hired and the first fired". In some cases in Coffee County, it was getting better. There were some black police and blacks on some of the boards and commissions. Unfortunately, white store owners were reluctant to open all their jobs to blacks. In closing Bradley suggested that it was up to the white man to lift the African American out of inequality. He states, “we have the power, the money, and the prestige that the Negro community lacks for real self-fulfillment”. Racism had differing levels of prevalence in the South; some more harsh than others. In some instances whites would resort to violence, even murder, to stop any efforts in black gaining equality through the Civil Rights movement. In the mid fifties, there was a flare of white aggression towards black people. In the 1955 case of Emmett Till, two Mississippi white men blatantly murdered a teenage black boy because he whistled at a white woman. The two men were tried for murder in a court of law but were acquitted because the jury was all was all white. This type of corruption was evident throughout the South.2
White supremacy could also be found in Southern public officials. The most famous of these was Alabama governor George Wallace. Wallace was an opportunist and would change his position according to what was popular. When Alabama politics shifted far right, Wallace shifted too. He began basing most of his campaign on segregation and in 1962 won more votes than any other gubernatorial candidate in Alabama’s history. In his inaugural address as governor, he stated, “Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!” In 1968 he ran for president but was lost to Richard Nixon. In Coffee County, however, he received more votes than the other two candidates combined, bringing in 60% of the vote. The issue of desegregation in the county’s schools was no doubt an important issue to Coffee County voters. It was more urgent in 1968, however, because this was the year in which there were serious attempts towards integration.3
In early 1968, Van Davis, the superintendent of the Coffee County school system, organized a desegregation plan which would comply with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In July of 1968, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW), based in Atlanta, sent a letter to Mr. Davis approving the plan. The proposed plan would be carried out in two phases. The first phase which would begin with the 1968-69 school term had three main points. The first point would reorganize the county bus system in order to eliminate overlapping. This was largely because many blacks at that time had to travel to Negro schools that were not necessarily close to their homes simply because of segregation. The second point of the plan assigned a “minimal number of 27 full-time classroom teachers to positions across racial lines.” This simply redistributed teachers in order to insure equality throughout different schools. The third point actually dealt with integration directly. It stated that “approximately 500 Negro students will attend traditionally white schools”. Half of these students were under the “freedom of choice” plan. The other half would be distributed according to their place of residency. The second phase of Superintendent Van Davis’ desegregation plan would go into effect in the 1969-70 school term. This phase basically worked out the distribution of the elementary schools and completed the destruction of the “dual system”. It specifically stated that the “racial identity” of Carver High School, the all Negro high school, would be removed. Although HEW had approved this plan, the school board still had to come to an agreement on it.4
Unfortunately, the racism which plagued the nation at this time was alive and well in the area. The white citizens of Coffee County, for the most part, did not want desegregation to happen. A group of them organized the Citizens League for Better Government to attempt to combat all attempts at integration. They tentatively attended the school board meetings and presented a petition signed by 3600 Coffee citizens. The petition suggested that the school board not make any moves towards integration until forced to. At one school board meeting “an uproar developed among many citizens of the community, especially among white parents of children in grades 7, 8, 9 and younger.” A possible reason for this “uproar” among these specific parents may have been that their white children would have to go to formerly Negro schools. Under the proposed plan, Carver High School would become the new integrated junior high school. This meant that a number of white students would have to attend schools that were supposedly “equal”. Not all of Coffee County was onboard with them however. A group of ministers for example urged the school board to “not be swayed by pressure groups or that which seems expedient or popular”. By pressure groups, they were namely speaking of the Citizens League, which contained thousands of supporters throughout the county.5
In March of 1969, after months of discussion, the board informed the HEW regional office in Atlanta that they “could not comply with their plan for the 1969-70 school term.” Local columnist, CJ Allen wrote, “The board has been swayed by public opinion”. He goes on to say, “This action could lead to the cut off of Federal funds.” The board of education was between a rock and a hard place. On one side they had thousands of Coffee County citizens protesting the plan for desegregation. On the other side, HEW could possible take away federal money which the schools desperately needed to survive. Vice Chairman C. D. Boggan Sr., the longest serving school board member, told the citizens to “have faith in the board to do the best possible for the school system if and when pressured by HEW”. Boggan was trying to be realistic with the citizens of Coffee County. If the board was denied, they would still have to work out something with HEW. The general mood was just to wait and see what happened. Most citizens felt that the previous “freedom of choice” plan, which had been instated on April 7, 1966, was working for the county already. What they did not realize, or chose to ignore, was that the majority of black students were not “choosing” to go to these white schools. They stayed “in their place” in the less equipped schools that they had always attended.6
The HEW regional office replied to the Coffee County Board of Education in April of 1969 expressing regret for the school board’s decision. They made clear in the letter that their policies were “reinforced by the courts” to see that schools “take prompt and effective action to eliminate the dual school structure” The school board had to submit a new plan for desegregation within thirty days. HEW suggested that the school system be reorganized to which there would be six grades of elementary school, three grades of junior high school, and three grades of high school - the 6-3-3 plan. HEW also wrote that if the school board did not comply, that Coffee County’s “federal financial assistance” would be terminated. There was not one exact way in which this desegregation had to be done. It was however, the intent of HEW to desegregate by the 1969-70 school term. Under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the dual system had to be eliminated.7
Needless to say, desegregation in Coffee County, much like the rest of the South, was a very important issue. It was important enough, in fact, to attract Georgia’s governor, Lester Maddox. On August, 5 1969, Gov. Maddox came to Douglas after being invited by the Citizens League for Better Government. His address fell right in line with what the Citizens League was preaching. He criticized local, state, and federal officials for not tending to "the dangers" that the country was facing. He then adds, "if we don't protect our interests here at home, we'll very soon have no homes." He made a comment regarding the public officials who were "selling the country out" and noted, "If we could put all these government officials in the prisons, we'd regain our country….if we don't do something they'll destroy our educational systems". Although he never clarified, the “they” that Maddox spoke so vaguely of, were obviously the people who were involved with desegregation. Maddox was perpetuating this idea that the issue of desegregation is in the hand of the white community. He stated in regards to opposition to integration that he would not surrender and that “I’d rather fight than switch”. The white community of Coffee County was hell-bent on keeping black people out of their schools and would not be easily dismissed.8
So far, Coffee County schools would be commencing at their regular dates under the 6-3-3 desegregation plan. On August, 27, the day that school were supposed to re-open, Supt. Van Davis announced that plans to continue the 6-3-3 school plan for the year 1969-70 had been reversed. This "bomb-like announcement" was made stating that school would re-open under the old system on September, 3... Supt. Davis cited the reasons for this reversal being the "lack of over-all support" and the state's Executive Department "continuing to urge citizens to disregard federal laws." Davis was trying to do the right thing, but could not garner any support from the people. This decision did not last long however. HEW Secretary Robert H Finch turned over the case to the Justice Department for "Immediate, appropriate legal action." Coffee was one of eight other school systems in the State of Georgia to be under action by the Justice Department. The most important thing this meant for Coffee County was that federal funding was going to be removed. By September, 23, the school board caved in and passed the 6-3-3 plan against the will of the Citizens League for Better Government. In its official form, this plan made a series of changes in the distribution of students and the combining of white and Negro schools. The two high schools, Coffee County High and Carver High, merged into one school and was renamed Coffee High School. Coffee Junior High School would be located at Carver's former location.9
In retaliation of this forced integration, the League started a boycott against the schools, asking "everyone to keep their children out of school effective today". In the first two weeks under the new plan, school attendance was a mere 64%. In response to these alarming absentee rates, a group of "concerned and law -abiding citizens" started the League to Save Out Schools. The main consequence of the lack of attendance would be the decrease in federal funds. The amount of money the Coffee County school system is disbursed for that next year is based on the attendance of the first four months of the previous year. One League member said, "On Thursday of last week we lost enough money to pay one teacher's salary for next year." On Oct 1, 1969, after an unscheduled meeting, the school board decided to close Coffee County schools until further notice in an attempt "to protect life and property". Apparently there had been a number of threats made to the officials involved with the integration plan. It was never determined who made the threats, however. During this week of turmoil, two different farmer's supply stores were broken into. In both incidents several guns were stolen. Schools reopened the following week in compliance with a Federal court order. Supt. Davis stated, “upon the advice of the Justice Department, assurances are given that interference with the court order will be dealt with under Federal Law.”10
Although Coffee County’s desegregation faced much opposition leading up to October 1969, justice was finally carried out. The county citizens avidly opposed the plan, but in the end they still needed federally funded public schools for their children. Throughout the ordeal, Superintendent Van Davis was continually the voice of reason in a county of seemingly un-reasonable people. Ironically, Davis resigned a few days after the schools reopened citing “health reasons” as the cause. School attendance was up to 73% by mid-October, showing an increase of 489 students from the previous Friday. Some parents still were participating in the boycott however. Members of the Citizens League For Better Government were raising money for private schools and eventually opened Citizens Christian Academy. In the final scheme of things, the desegregation of Coffee County was a moderately peaceful event. People protested it, but when the time came, then accepted it. Jack Greenburg summed it up when he wrote, “Altogether school desegregation has been a story of conspicuous achievements, flawed by marked failures.” He said that lawyers “have their limits, the rest of the job is up to the society”.11
1. Wooward, C. Vann and others, eds., When Did Southern Segregation Begin? (Boston, New York: Bedford/ St. Martin’s), 54.
Patterson, James T.,Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 2001), xiii.
2. Patterson, 10,86,87.
Bradley, E.R., "Improving Race Relations", Coffee County Progress, 8 January 1968.
3. Patterson, 88-94.
“Nixon, Agnew Winners Wallace Takes County”, CCP, 7 November 1968, sec A, p.1
4. "HEW Tentatively Approves Coffee Desegregation Plan," CCP, 4 July 1968, sec. A, p.1.
"HEW Wants New School Plan For '69-70 Term April 25th," CCP, 15 April 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
5. "Board of Education Tells HEW Can't Comply With '69 Promise", CCP, 11 March 1969, sec A, p.1.
"Place Good of All Pupils First" Douglas Enterprise, 20 February 1969.
“Board Votes Freedom of Choice Method”, DE, 13 March 1969, sec A, p.1
6. "Board of Education Tells…’69 Promise", CCP, 11 March 1969, sec. A, p.1.
"HEW Wants New School Plan For '69-70 Term April 25th," CCP, 15 April 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
7. "HEW Wants New School Plan For '69-70 Term April 25th," CCP, 15 April 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
8. “Wait & See, On State Suit, Governor Maddox Advises”, CCP, 7 August 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
9. “School Board Abandons 6-3-3 Plan, Opens Sept. 3 Under Old Plan”, CCP, 28 August 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
“Schools Face Justice Dept. Action, Will Open Sept. 3”, CCP, 2 September 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
“Schools 6-3-3 Plan Begins On Wednesday”, CCP, 23 September 1969, sec. A, p.1.
10. “Save Out Schools Group Organized Here Saturday”, CCP, 30 September 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
“School Attendance 64% Issues Still Unresolved”, CCP, 2 October 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
“Schools Closed Wednesday To Protect Life, Property” CCP, 7 October 1969, sec. A, p. 1.
“Schools Re-Open Thursday Under Federal Court Order”, CCP, 9 October 1969, sec. A, p.1.
11. “Supt. Van Davis Resigns, Moore Succeeds Bassett”, CCP, 9 October 1969, sec. A, p.1.
Patterson, 223.